Myst 


^^^^^^ 


^M 


AND 


!i. 


Magic 


N^^^ 


Turkey 


U-visioa  B?n5 
Section    .I)4G-Z3 


UysM 


MYSTICISM     AND 
MAGIC    IN    TURKEY 


By  the  Same  Author. 

Turkey  of  the  Ottomans. — 
In  imperial  16mo,  cloth  gilt, 
gilt  top,  with  about  30  full 
page  plate  illustrations. 
6s.  net. 

"  There  could  hardly  be  a 
better  handbook  for  the  news- 
paper reader  who  wants  to 
understand  all  the  conditions 
of  the  '  danger  zone. 
Spectator. 


I  I » 


< 


< 


ST      I 


f.r-^ 


w 
w 

I—! 

w 


< 


K'n'./  -^ 


•  1912 


MYSTICISM    AND 
MAGIC  IN  TURKEY 


AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  RELIGIOUS  DOCTRINES, 
MONASTIC  ORGANISATION.  AND  ECSTATIC 
POWERS     OF    THE     DERVISH    ORDERS 


BY 

■I 

LUCY    M.   J.    GARNETT 

AUTHOR    OF 
THE  TURKISH  PEOPLE,"    "TURKEY  OF  THE  OTTOMANS,"  ETC. 
TRANSLATOR   OF   "GREEK   FOLK-POESY  " 


ILLUSTRATED    FROM    PHOTOGRAPHS 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

153-157    Fifth   Avenue 
1912 


PREFACE 

My  aim  in  this  volume  has  been  to  give  a  thoroughly- 
impartial  account  of  the  Dervishes  of  Turkey,  so 
far  as  my  knowledge  of  their  principles  and  practices 
will  allow,  neither  unduly  concealing  their  lower, 
nor  unduly  exalting  their  higher  aspects.  And 
I  would  fain  hope  that  this  brief  study  of  the 
Mystics  of  Islam  may  be  found  to  have  not  only  a 
speculative  and  religious,  but  also  a  practical  and 
political  interest.  In  controversies  with  respect  to 
Islam  and  Civilisation,  no  account  is  usually  taken 
of  the  Mystical  side  of  this  Creed  as  a  native  element 
of  antagonism  to  the  most  essential  doctrines  of 
Islam.  Widespread  as  is  this  unorthodox  mysti- 
cism, it  has  been,  and  still  is  compelled  to  keep  itself 
to  a  certain  extent  hidden.  Events  may,  however, 
possibly,  sooner  or  later,  bring  it  to  the  surface, 
and  endow  it  with  practical  significance.  For 
as  in  the  Christian  West  there  has  ever  been  a 
continuous  protest  both  on  the  intellectual  side  by 
philosophers,  and  on  the  rehgious  side  by  mystics, 
against  the  more  distinctively  Semitic  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  so  it  has  also  been  in  the  Moslem  East 
in  the  Schools  of  the  Dervishes,  both  among  the 
Persians  and  the  Ottomans.     And  as  this  speculative 


VI  PREFACE 

protest  by  the  Monks  of  Islam  has  not  been  without 
practical  results  in  Persia,  so  may  it  likewise  be 
expected  to  have  corresponding  results  in  Turkey. 
From  the  Siifism  of  the  Dervish  Orders  sprang  the 
movement  of  Babism,  the  initiation  of  which  was 
contemporary  with  the  European  revolutionary 
uprising  of  '48.  This  movement,  which  was  sup- 
pressed with  the  most  barbarous  atrocities,  gave 
greater  promise  than  any  other  event  connected 
with  the  East  of  that  only  possible  kind  of  regenera- 
tion— regeneration  from  within.  And  should  a 
movement  similar  to  that  of  Babism,  and,  like  it, 
derived  from  the  Sufism  of  the  Dervishes,  break 
out  in  Turkey,  its  importance  will,  it  is  to  be  hoped, 
be  better  understood  in  Europe  than  was  that  of 
Persian  Babism. 

L.  M.  J.  G. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP. 

I.  THE   DERVISH   ORDERS  AND   THEIR   TENETS 

II.  THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  . 

III.  THE   METAPHORS  OF  THE   POETS 

IV.  MONASTERIES  AND   SHRINES 
V.  MONASTIC   RULE  AND   DISCIPLINE 

VI.  THE   STAGES   OF  INITIATION 

VII.  THE    COSTUMES,    MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS,   AND 
SYMBOLIC    OBJECTS    OF    THE    DERVISHES 

VIII.  THE  VARIOUS   RELIGIOUS   EXERCISES       . 

IX.  SURVIVALS   OF  PAGANISM       . 

X.  THE  ACTS  OF  THE   ADEPTS  . 

XI.  WOMEN   MYSTICS  .... 

XII.  STATUS  AND   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   ORDERS 


PAGE 
1 

22 
44 
64 
78 
95 

107 
122 
136 
146 
170 
178 


vn 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


A    MEVLEVI   TEKKEH,    SALONICA 

A    RUFAI,    OR    "  HOWLING  "    DERVISH 

A   WANDERING   DERVISH 

THE    ADRIANOPLE   GATE,    STAMBOUL 

BEGGING   DERVISH   AND   NIGHT-WATCHMAN 

AN    ELDER    OF   THE    MEVLEVI    ORDER 

MEVLEVI   NEOPHYTE    LEARNING   THE    DEVR 

A    MEVLEVI    PLAYER    ON    THE    NEY,    OR    REED-FLUTE 

THE    DEVR    OF   THE    MEVLEVI    ORDER 

A    WANDERING    DERVISH  .... 

CITY    GATE    CALLED    THE    MSVLEVI-HANE      STAMBOUL 

DERVISH    WITH    LEANING   CRUTCH        .  .  .  . 


Frontispiece 

facing 
page 

10 

30 

48 

68 

80 

98 

118 

130 

142 

152 

176 


ix 


MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 
IN   TURKEY 


CHAPTER    I 

THE  DERVISH  ORDERS  AND  THEIR  TENETS 

"  Under  an  alien  name 
I  shadow  One  upon  whose  Head  the  crown 
Was,  and  yet  Is,  and  Shall  be  ;    whose  Decree 
The  Kingdoms  Seven  of  this  world,  and  the  Seas, 
And  the  Seven  Heavens  alike  are  subject  to. 
All  joy  to  him  who,  under  other  name, 
Instructed  us  that  Glory  to  disguise 
To  which  the  initiate  scarce  dare  lift  his  eyes  !  " 

J  AM  I,  Salaman  and  Ahsal. 

Although  the  second  century  of  the  Mohammedan 
era  has  been  assigned  by  various  students  of  the 
Siifi  Philosophy  as  the  date  of  its  origin,  societies 
of  mystics  would  appear  to  have  existed  in  Islam 
from  its  very  foundation.^  For  it  is  recorded  that, 
in  the  first  year  of  that  era,  a  number  of  the  follow- 
ers of  the  Prophet  formed  themselves  into  a  Brother- 
hood for  the  ostensible  practice  of  certain  religious 
exercises  of  penitence  and  physical  mortification. 
The  word  "  Dervish  "  is,  in  Persian,  synonymous 
with  "  beggar,"  and  denotes  also  a  person  who 
voluntarily  impoverishes  himself  for  the  benefit 
of  others.    The  Khahfs  Ali  and  Abu  Bekr,  actuated 

1 


2  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

by  the  desire  to  fulfil  literally  that  precept  of  the 
Koran  which  says  that  "  He  is  the  best  of  men  who 
is  most  useful  to  his  fellow-men,"  gave  up  their 
worldly  goods  to  the  common  use,  and  entered  upon 
a  career  of  service  to  others,  calling  themselves 
Safa  bashis'^  to  indicate  the  purity  of  their  lives. 
The  members  of  these  Fraternities  took,  however, 
a  vow  of  fidelity  to  the  Prophet  and  his  doctrines, 
and  continued  to  perform  their  duties  as  citizens, 
meeting  occasionally  for  the  performance  of  the 
religious  exercises  peculiar  to  each  congregation. 
The  leaders  appointed  their  successors  in  office 
under  the  title  of  Khalifeh  ;  and  these  in  their  turn 
transmitted  the  rule  of  the  Fraternity  to  the  most 
venerable,  or  the  most  spiritually  gifted,  among 
its   members. 

Apart  from  the  attraction  of  the  Siifi  doctrines, 
a  life  passed  in  retirement  from  the  world  for  the 
purpose  of  contemplation  and  devotion  appears  to 
have  always  been  congenial  to  the  Oriental  mind  ; 
and  this  natural  tendency  proved  stronger  than  the 
injunction  of  the  Prophet  prohibiting  monasticism 
among  his  followers.  For,  even  during  Mohammed's 
lifetime,  many  of  the  followers  of  Abu  Bekr  and  All 
abandoned  the  rules  of  the  primitive  fraternities 
and  formed  monastic  societies,  the  first  Order  of 
Austere  Anchorites  being  founded  in  the  thirty- 
seventh  year  of  the  Hegira  (a.d.  659)  by  Sheikh 
Uwais  of  Yemen,  who  gave  out  that  the  Angel 

1  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  Journal  des  Savants,  1821,  p.  724, 
and  D'Ohsson,  Tableau  General  de  la  Turquie. 


THE  DERVISH   ORDERS  3 

Gabriel  had  commanded  him,  in  a  vision,  to  with- 
draw from  the  world  and  consecrate  himself  to  a 
hfe  of  seclusion  and  penitence.  The  celestial 
visitant  at  the  same  time  communicated  to  this 
ascetic  the  rules  of  the  Order  he  was  to  found,  which 
included  abstinence  from  food,  and  even  the  most 
innocent  pleasures,  seclusion,  and  the  recital  of  a 
great  number  of  prayers  by  day  and  night.  To 
these  mortifications  he  voluntarily  added  the  loss 
of  his  teeth,  requiring  the  same  sacrifice  from  his 
disciples,  an  ordeal  which  naturally  prevented  his 
making  proselytes  of  any  but  the  most  fanatical, 
notwithstanding  the  Sheikh's  high  reputation  for 
learning  and  piety;  and  the  sect  never  spread 
beyond  Yemen,  where  it  originated.  It,  however, 
greatly  contributed  to  the  institution  of  other 
monastic  orders  by  the  more  earnestly  minded  of 
the  followers  of  Abu  Bekr  and  Ali. 

The  second  century  of  the  Hegira  was  the  era  of 
a  great  religious  movement.  On  one  side  was 
developed  a  scepticism  and  unbeHef  that  shook 
Islam  to  its  foundations,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
mysticism  acquired  increasing  power.  This  century 
gave  birth  to  a  multitude  of  sects,  and  has  accord- 
ingly been  fixed  upon,  as  before  mentioned,  as  the 
commencement  of  the  system  of  religion  and 
philosophy  professed  by  the  Siifis.  Their  recog- 
nised founder  was  Abu  Said  Abulkhair,  who  hved 
at  the  end  of  that  and  the  beginning  of  the  next 
century,  and  founded  a  monastic  institution  into 
which  he  gathered  those  whose  mode  of  thinking 


4  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

resembled  his  own,  and  laid  down  rules  for  their 
guidance.  There  is,  however,  much  disparity  of 
opinion  as  to  whether  Sufism,  as  it  now  exists,  was, 
as  asserted  by  the  Sufis  themselves,  instituted  by 
him.  In  any  case  it  is  probable  that  the  sect  did 
not  long  remain  within  the  limits  of  orthodox  piety. 
This  was,  indeed,  impossible.  For  the  Sufi  philoso- 
phy, as  must  be  admitted,  was  entirely  out  of  keeping 
with  the  creed  of  Mohammed.  And  the  mysticism 
of  the  early  Moslems,  so  tender  and  full  of  sentiment, 
became  gradually  transformed  into  Pantheism,  an 
equally  natural  consequence  of  its  inherent  tendencies 
and  of  the  action  upon  Islam  of  older  rehgious 
systems. 

In  the  ninth  century  of  our  era,  the  partisans  of 
this  doctrine  were  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
chief  of  the  one  being  Abu  Yezid,  or  Bayazid 
Bestemi,  who  is  revered  as  the  Pir,  or  founder  of 
the  Bestemi  Order,  and  of  the  other,  Djouneid. 
Bayazid  Bestemi  openly  preached  a  Pantheism 
irreconcilable  with  revealed  rehgion,  and  proclaimed 
more  explicitly  than  any  other  Siifi  teacher  had 
done  the  divine  nature  of  man.  Among  the 
expressions  he  made  use  of  are  the  following  : — 

"I  am  an  ocean  without  bottom  and  without 
shore,  without  beginning  and  without  end." 

"  When  men  imagine  that  they  are  adoring  Allah, 
it  is  Allah  who  adores  Himself." 

"  The  seed  of  Siifism  was  sown  in  the  days  of 
Adam  ;  it  sprang  up  in  those  of  Noah  ;  blossomed 
under  Abraham  ;    and,  at  the  time  of  Moses  the 


THE  DERVISH   ORDERS  5 

grapes  began  to  be  formed.  They  came  to  maturity 
in  the  days  of  Jesus,  and  in  those  of  Mohammed 
was  the  wine  pressed  from  them.  Those  of  the  Siifis 
who  have  loved  this  Wine  have  drunk  of  it  until 
self-consciousness  was  drowned  ;  and  they  have  then 
cried,  *  Glory  to  me  !  Is  there  anything  greater  than 
I  ?'  or  '  I  am  the  truth,  there  is  no  God  beside 
me!'"i 

Djouneid  and  his  followers,  on  the  other  hand, 
while  holding  practically  identical  opinions,  ex- 
pressed themselves  more  prudently,  and  succeeded 
in  uniting  in  an  extraordinary  manner  the  dogmas 
of  the  Koran  v^dth  a  system  of  philosophy  which 
tended  to  destroy  all  rehgious  practices,  and  reduce 
to  nothing  the  merits  of  faith  and  works.  To  arrive 
at  this  result  they  had  recourse  to  an  expedient 
known  as  the  Ketmafiy  which  has  indeed  rendered 
eminent  service  in  all  times  and  in  all  rehgions,  but 
has  been  practised  with  greater  success  by  the  Sufis 
than  by  any  other  sect.  The  terms  of  the  dogmas 
of  Islam  were  retained,  but  a  totally  different 
signification  was  given  to  them  by  the  Sufi  teachers. 
Irreproachable  Moslems  in  outward  appearance, 
these  mystics  have  ever  excelled  in  the  art  of 
evading  dangerous  investigations,  and,  as  M.  Dozy 
remarks,  ^  it  *'  is  rare  that  an  adept,  even  when  in 

1  Garcin  de  Tassy,  M antic  Uttair,  4th  ed.,  p.  5  ;  and 
Sprenger,  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  134.  Compare  also  the  expressions  of  St.  Augustine, 
of  Duns  Scotus  Erigena,  and  of  Eckhart,  the  Christian 
Mystic  (1268-1327).    See  Vaughan,  Hours  with  the  Mystics. 

2  Essai  Sur  I'Histoire  de  I'Islamisme,  p.  323. 

2 — (2II9) 


6  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

an  ecstatic  state,  compromises  himself  by  pro- 
claiming in  public  what  is  every  SM's  private 
behef — '  /  am  God.'  "  By  means  of  the  Ketman 
and  aUied  methods  of  propaganda,  SMsm  has 
succeeded  in  permeating  every  class  of  Moslem 
society,  has  had  for  centuries  past  its  Chiefs,  its 
Councils,  its  Monks  and  its  Missionaries,  and  presents 
phases  varied  enough  to  suit  every  class  of  thought. 
Hosain  Ibn  Mansur,  also  called  Mansur  Halladj, 
who  suffered  martyrdom  in  922,  is  revered  by  the 
Siifis  as  one  of  their  greatest  saints.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  Djouneid,  a  Persian  by  birth,  and  grand- 
son of  a  Zoroastrian  or  Magian.  According  to  the 
moderate  Shias,  his  doctrine  was  that  by  practising 
abstinence,  avoiding  all  worldly  pursuits  and 
pleasures,  and  mortifying  the  flesh,  it  is  possible  for 
man  to  elevate  himself  through  successive  stages 
until  he  becomes  the  equal  of  the  Elect,  and  even 
of  the  Angels.  If  he  perseveres  in  this  path  until 
nothing  remains  of  his  earthly  nature,  he  receives 
"  the  Spirit  of  God  "  as  Jesus  is  held  by  Moslems 
to  have  received  it,  and  everything  that  he  subse- 
quently does  is  a  divine  action.  The  Shias  also 
maintain  that  he  was  put  to  death  on  account  of 
the  extraordinary  influence  he  exercised  among  the 
upper  classes,  the  Princes  and  their  surroundings, 
which  aroused  the  jealous  hostihty  of  the  orthodox 
clergy.  Halladj  has  not,  indeed,  been  unfavourably 
judged  by  the  more  liberal-minded  among  orthodox 
v/riters.  Gazzah,  for  instance,  who,  while  he  pro- 
fessedly regarded  the  Sufi  philosophy  with  aversion, 


THE  DERVISH  ORDERS  7 

expressed  his  preference  for  a  religion  which  had 
its  seat  in  the  heart  as  compared  with  the  dry- 
orthodoxy  expounded  by  the  majority  of  the  Ulema  ; 
and  he  attributed  even  such  assertions  of  Halladj 
as  *'  I  am  the  Truth,  there  is  nothing  in  Paradise 
save  Allah,"  etc.,  to  his  excessive  adoration  of  the 
Deity.  For  the  majority  of  orthodox  writers  of  the 
period,  however,  this  mystic  was  a  blaspheming  infidel 
and  sorcerer.  On  his  return  to  Bagdad  after  perform- 
ing the  customary  pilgrimage  to  Mekka,  strange 
stories  of  his  miraculous  powers  were  circulated  in  the 
city.  He  was  credited  with  having  raised  the  dead 
to  life  ;  the  Djins,  it  was  said,  were  subject  to  him, 
and  fulfilled  his  every  command.  Fearing  his 
influence  with  the  populace,  and  incited  also,  no 
doubt,  by  the  legists,  the  Vizier  Hamid  induced  the 
Khalif  Moktadir  to  place  Halladj  and  his  followers 
at  his  disposal ;  and  notwithstanding  the  protection 
of  the  Lord  Chamberlain,  the  mystic  and  his 
disciples  were  arrested. 

When  questioned,  the  disciples  admitted  that 
they  looked  upon  their  master  as  divine,  seeing  that 
he  had  raised  the  dead  to  life.  But  when  Halladj 
himself  was  interrogated  his  reply  was,  "  God  forbid 
that  I  should  lay  claim  to  divinity  or  even  to  the 
dignity  of  Prophet.  I  am  a  man  who  adores  the 
most  high  God." 

The  Vizier  then  summoned  the  Kadis  and 
principal  theologians,  and  demanded  of  them  a 
sentence  against  Halladj.  They  replied  that  it 
was  illegal  to  condemn  the  accused  man  without 


8  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

proofs  of  his  alleged  crime,  as  he  had  not 
confessed. 

Foiled  in  his  design,  the  Vizier  had  the  mystic 
brought  before  him  from  time  to  time,  and  attempted 
in  vain  to  draw  from  him  some  heretical  admission. 
He  found  at  length  in  his  writings  a  statement  to 
the  effect  that  if  a  Moslem  were  prevented  making 
the  prescribed  pilgrimage  to  Mekka,  he  might  dis- 
pense with  it  by  preparing  a  chamber  in  his  own 
house  in  which  to  perform  the  rites  connected  with 
that  duty  ;  these  rites  accomplished,  he  must  further 
take  to  him  thirty  orphans,  feed  them  on  choice 
food,  clothe  them  and  bestow  upon  each  one  seven 
drachmas  ;  and  the  fulfilment  of  these  duties  would 
gain  for  him  the  merit  of  having  performed  the 
pilgrimage.  On  this  being  shown  by  the  Vizier  to 
the  Kadi  Abou  Amr,  he  was  scandalised,  and  asked, 
"  Where  hast  thou  found  such  an  idea  ?  "  Halladj 
mentioned  a  work  by  Hassan  of  Bassora.  "It  is 
a  lie !  O  infidel,  whose  blood  it  is  lawful  to  spill," 
cried  the  Kadi.  *' The  book  thou  namest  was 
explained  to  us  at  Mekka  by  one  of  the  Doctors  ; 
but  what  thou  hast  written  was  not  contained  in 
it!" 

The  Vizier  seized  eagerly  upon  the  epithet 
"  Infidel,"  used  by  the  Kadi,  and  demanded  a  sentence 
of  death  from  him.  The  Kadi  at  first  demurred, 
saying  that  such  was  not  his  meaning  ;  but  the 
Vizier  insisted,  and  finally  obtained  a  warrant  for 
the  execution  of  Halladj,  signed  by  the  Kadi  and 
the  other  legists.     In  vain  Halladj  sought  to  prove 


THE   DERVISH   ORDERS  9 

his  condemnation  unjust.  "  You  have  not  the 
right,"  he  exclaimed,  "  to  shed  my  blood.  My 
faith  is  that  of  Islam  ;  I  believe  in  the  Hadis 
(traditions)  on  which  I  have  written  works  that  may 
be  found  at  all  the  booksellers.  I  have  always 
acknowledged  the  Four  Imams,  and'  the  Four 
Khalifs.  I  call  God  to  my  aid,  that  my  life  may  be 
spared  ! "  His  protests  were  unavaiUng.  The 
Vizier  hastened  to  bring  the  fetvas  of  the  legists 
before  the  KhaUf,  who  ordered  that  Halladj  should 
die  by  scourging.  He  received  a  thousand  strokes, 
after  which  his  hands  and  feet  were  cut  off,  and 
subsequently  his  head,  and  his  body  committed  to 
the  flames.  The  disciples  of  Halladj,  however, 
refused  to  believe  that  their  revered  master  was 
dead.  They  maintained  that  a  person  resembling 
him  had  suffered  in  his  place,  and  that  he  would 
show  himself  again  after  forty  days.  Some  declared 
that  they  had  seen  him  on  the  road  to  Nahrawan, 
mounted  on  an  ass,  and  that  he  had  said  to  them, 
"  Be  not  hke  those  foohsh  men  who  believe  that  I 
have  been  scourged  and  put  to  death.'* 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  Sufi  version  of  the  story  : — 
"  The  name  of  Halladj  was  in  everyone's  mouth  ; 
they  saw  the  miracles  that  he  did,  and  an  immense 
multitude  followed  him.  And  how  should  it  have 
been  otherwise  ?  Returning  from  a  pilgrimage,  he 
happened  to  be  crossing  the  desert  with  four  hundred 
Siifis.  His  companions  said  to  him  one  day,  *  We 
have  nothing  to  eat,  and  we  are  hungry  ;  we  would 
like  a  roast  lamb.' 


10  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 


((  ( 


Sit  down,'  said  the  Saint. 

"  When  they  were  seated,  he  placed  his  hand 
behind  his  back  and  gave  to  each  one  a  roast  lamb 
and  two  small  hot  loaves.  They  ate,  and  then 
asked  for  dates. 

'*  *  Shake  me,'  said  the  Saint. 

"  They  did  so,  and  there  fell  from  him  fresh  dates 
in  such  quantities  that  they  sufficed  for  all  the 
company. 

"  But  there  were  those  who  were  envious  of  the 
wonderful  gifts  of  Halladj.  These  slandered  him 
before  the  Khahf ,  and  the  Doctors  of  Bagdad  con- 
demned him  to  death  because  he  had  said  '  I  am 
the  Truth.'  They  desired  him  to  say  '  It  is 
He  who  is  God,'  and  he  rephed,  '  Yea,  He  is  all 
things.' 

"He  was  cast  into  prison.  A  multitude  of  people 
flocked  to  him  for  instruction,  until,  after  the  lapse 
of  a  year,  it  was  forbidden  to  visit  him.  The  first 
night  of  his  imprisonment,  he  was  not  to  be  seen 
in  his  cell ;  on  the  second,  neither  prisoner  nor  cell 
were  to  be  seen.  *  Where  hast  thou  been  ?  ' 
demanded  the  jailer  of  him.  '  The  first  night,'  he 
rephed,  '  I  was  with  the  Glorious  Being,  for  that 
reason  thou  sawest  me  not ;  on  the  second,  the 
Glorious  Being  was  with  me,  so  thou  sawest  neither 
me  nor  the  cell.  To-day  I  am  sent  here  to  satisfy 
the  law ;  come  and  do  to  me  what  thou  art 
commanded.'  " 

It  is  also  related  that  when  he  arrived  at  the  prison 
six  hundred  persons  were  confined  there.     "  I  will 


A   RUFAI,    OR        HOWLING        DERVISH 


THE  DERVISH   ORDERS  11 

deliver  you,"  he  said.  "Why  dehverest  thou  not 
thyself  ?  "  they  asked.  "  I  am  in  the  chains  of  God, 
and  I  have  a  companion,  a  faithful  guardian.  I 
have  only  to  desire  it,  and  at  a  sign  my  fetters  will 
fall  from  me."  He  made  a  sign  and  the  fetters  of 
all  the  prisoners  fell.  "  But  the  door  is  closed," 
they  said.  "  How  shall  we  depart  ?  "  Halladj 
having  made  another  signal,  the  doors  opened,  every- 
one went  out,  and  he  was  left  alone.  "  Why 
departest  thou  not  also  ?  "  he  was  asked.  "  I  have 
a  secret,"  he  replied,  "  which  I  must  impart  only  to 
him  who  is  able  to  guard  a  secret." 

On  the  following  day  the  Khahf,  learning  what 
had  happened,  exclaimed,  "  He  will  do  mischief ; 
let  him  be  hanged  !  " 

They  asked  Halladj  "  Where  are  the  prisoners  ?  " 

"  I  have  set  them  free." 

"  Why  hast  thou  too  not  departed  ?  " 

"  Because  Allah  is  offended  with  me." 

The  Khahf  then  gave  the  order  to  scourge  him. 
He  received  six  hundred  strokes,  and  at  each  stroke 
a  voice  was  heard  crying,  "  Fear  nothing,  Halladj  !  " 
A  hundred  thousand  persons  had  assembled  on  the 
road  by  which  he  was  to  pass  to  the  scaffold.  His 
eyes  wandered  over  them,  and  he  cried,  "  God  I 
God !    God  !  I  am  God  I  " 

"  What  is  true  love  ?  "  a  Dervish  asked  of  him. 

"  That  shalt  thou  learn  to-day,  to-morrow,  and  the 
day  after,"  was  the  reply. 

**  Give  me  a  remembrance  of  thee,"  begged  a 
youth. 


12  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 


The  men  of  this  world,"  replied  the  martyr, 
aspire  after  good  works.  Do  thou  aspire  after  a 
thing  of  which  an  indivisible  atom  is  worth  more 
than  the  collective  good  works  of  angels  and  men — 
the  knowledge  of  true  science.'*^ 

While  speaking,  Halladj  danced  and  waved  his 
hands.  *'  What  manner  of  walking  is  this  ?  '*  he 
was  asked.  "  Am  I  not  going  to  the  place  of  my 
sacrifice  ?  *'  was  his  reply,  and  he  broke  out  into  the 
following  mystical  song  : — 

Say  not,  my  Friend  is  heedless  of  my  pain  ; 

The  Cup  He  gives  to  me  He  too  doth  taste.  * 

Like  host  that  with  his  guest  the  wine  doth  drain. 

Yet,  while  the  Cup  goes  round,  the  block  and  sword  appear. 

Such  fate  is  his  who  with  the  Dragon  ^  drinks. 

While  ardent  shines  the  summer  sun  [above  the  plain]. 

When  he  placed  his  foot  upon  the  first  step  of 
the  scaffold,  Halladj  exclaimed,  "  Behold  man's 
ladder  to  Heaven  I "  He  adjusted  his  girdle, 
removed  his  taiksan — the  drapery  covering  his  head 
and  shoulders —  turned  his  face  towards  Mekka,  and 
with  uplifted  hands  uttered  an  inaudible  prayer. 
He  then  mounted  the  ladder.  The  people  threw 
stones  at  him,  but  he  uttered  no  word  of  complaint 
or  reproach.  When,  however,  the  Siifi  Chibli,  also 
a  disciple  of  Djouneid,  threw  mud  at  him,  he  heaved 
a  sigh.  "  Thou  dost  not  sigh  when  thou  art  struck 
with  stones,  why  sighest  thou  when  they  throw  but 

^  Evidently  signifying  that  God,  being  present  in  the 
individual,  sacrifices  Himself. 

^  The  Dragon,  a  sign  of  the  Zodaic,  here  represents  the 
Deity. 


THE   DERVISH   ORDERS  13 

mud  at  thee  ?  "  he  was  asked.  "  They  who  take 
up  stones,"  repUed  the  martyr,  "  know  not  what 
they  do,  so  that  does  not  afflict  me  ;  but  ChibU 
knows  that  he  sins,  when  he  throws  but  mud." 
When  his  hand  was  cut  off,  he  smiled  and  said,  "  It 
is  not  difficult  to  cut  off  the  hand  of  him  who  is  in 
chains;  it  would  require  greater  dexterity  to 
deprive  him  of  the  quahties  which  raise  him  to  the 
highest  heaven."  His  feet  were  cut  off.  He  still 
smiled,  saying,  "  I  have  still  two  other  feet  to  carry 
me  to  the  Two  Worlds,  cut  them  off  if  you  can ! " 
When  deprived  of  his  hands,  he  rubbed  his  cheeks 
and  arms  with  his  bloody  wrists  ;  and  when  ques- 
tioned as  to  the  meaning  of  this  action,  he  rephed, 
"  I  have  already  lost  much  blood,  and  my  cheeks 
will  soon  become  pale.  I  am  unwilhng  you  should 
imagine  that  they  are  blanched  by  terror,  and  I  wish 
to  leave  you  with  rosy  cheeks.  Dark  red  is  the 
colour  of  men."  "  But  why,"  they  persisted,  "  dost 
thou  besmear  thy  arms  with  thy  blood  ?  "  "I  do 
but  perform  the  ablest  i—the  ablutions  of  love  should 
be  made  with  blood." 

When  he  had  been  deprived  of  his  eyes,  and  his 
executioners  were  preparing  to  cut  out  his  tongue, 
he  desired  to  speak  once  more  ;  and  while  the  mob 
continued  to  assail  him  with  stones,  he  cried, 
"  Great  God  I  Reject  them  not  because  they  afflict 
me  thus.  Praise  to  Thee,  because,  for  my  love  of 
Thee,  they  have  cut  off  my  hands  and  my  feet. 

1  The  Moslem  ablution  which  precedes  the  prayers 
repeated  five  times  daily  by  all  good  Moslems. 


14  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

When  my  head  is  severed  from  my  body,  grant  that 
I  may  see  Thy  face."  His  last  words  were,  "  The 
only  thing  required  by  the  Only  One,  is,  that  men 
declare  Him  to  be  the  Only  One."^ 

Such  is  the  version  given  by  the  Sufis  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Halladj.  They  look  upon  him  as 
one  of  the  most  eminent  representatives  of  their 
doctrines,  having  shown  that  death,  and  above  all, 
the  most  cruel  death,  is  the  happiest  thing  that  can 
befall  a  Sufi ;  for  by  it  his  soul  is  delivered  from  its 
prison,  the  body,  and  *'  the  Lover  "  attains  that 
"  eternal  union  "  with  the  "  Beloved  "  which  he  has 
so  long  and  so  ardently  desired. 

Another  legend  says  that  an  inspired  Siifi  asked 
the  Almighty  why  He  permitted  Mansiir  Halladj 
to  suffer.  The  reply  was,  "It  is  the  punishment 
for  the  revealer  of  secrets."  It  is  also  related  that 
when  the  Saint  was  about  to  be  impaled  in  addition 
to  his  other  tortures,  the  executioners  could  not 
perform  their  duty.  In  vain  they  endeavoured  to 
seize  him  ;  his  body  always  eluded  their  grasp,  and 
appeared  seated  in  a  composed  posture  in  the  air 
at  some  distance  from  the  stake.  While  this  was 
occurring  on  earth,  his  soul  sought  the  regions  of 
Paradise.  He  was  accosted  by  the  Prophet,  who 
admitted  that  he  had  arrived  at  the  highest  stage, 
that  of  Wisdl,  or  "  Union,"  and  that  his  declaration 
that  he  was  God  was  true.  Mohammed,  however, 
entreated  him,  for  the  sake  of  practical  religion, 
which  was  necessary  for  unenlightened  mortals,  to 

1  Dozy,  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  de  Vlslamisme,  p.  234  et  seq. 


THE   DERVISH   ORDERS  15 

allow  himself  to  be  impaled.  The  soul  of  the  holy 
man  accordingly,  convinced  by  the  words  of  the 
Prophet,  returned  to  earth  to  reanimate  his  body, 
and  suffer  the  death  to  which  he  had  been  sentenced 
by  his  earthly  judges.  ^ 

Similar  conceptions  of  Oneness  with  the  Deity 
are  expressed  in  a  modern  work  by  a  Turkish 
mystic,  of  which  the  following  paragraph  may  serve 
as   an  example  : — 

"  And  he  [Jewad]  laid  his  head  on  the  pillow  of 
the  quest  of  inspiration.  Straightway  he  opened 
his  eyes,  and  found  himself  lying  on  a  shore  near  a 
vast  city.  He  rose,  and  wondering,  said  to  himself, 
'  My  life  !  Surely  I  was  in  my  room  .  .  .  and  this 
city  that  is  before  me  resembles  not  ours.  There  is 
no  strength  nor  power  save  in  Allah, "^  Am  I  in  a 
vision  ?  '  In  a  single  moment  poor  Jewad  forgot 
all  that  he  had  known — those  spiritual  sciences  and 
strange  arts  that  he  had  learned  and  practised  for 
so  long,  all  his  wisdom  and  attainments,  his  manifest 
gifts,  his  initiation  into  the  Arcana  ;  nay,  even  what 
he  had  learned  and  comprehended  by  means  of  his 
five  outer  and  inner  senses  ;  and  he  stood  as  though 
new  born  from  his  mother,  gazing  around  him  in 
confusion."  [Jewad  then  meets  an  aged  man,  who 
conducts  him  into  the  city  and  shows  him  all  its 
beauties,  and  finally  introduces  him  into  the  palace 
of  the  King.]     "  The  happy  Jewad  had  left  him  no 

1  Malcolm,  History  of  Persia,  Vol.  II,  p.  281. 
*  A  customary    Moslem    formula    when    surprised    or 
startled. 


16  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

eye  to  see,  or  understanding  to  observe,  or  compre- 
hension to  know,  or  tongue  to  speak.  When  he 
entered  the  Royal  Presence  and  raised  his  eyes  to 
look  upon  the  beauty  of  the  King,  he  saw  that  he  who 
sat  upon  the  indescribable  Throne  was — Himself.*'^ 

The  twelfth  century  of  the  Christian  era  gave 
birth  to  two  very  important  Orders — the  Kadiri, 
and  the  Riifa'i.  The  founder  of  the  former,  Abdul 
Kadr  of  Ghilan,  besides  being  an  eminent  mystic, 
was  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  numbered  among 
his  disciples  his  nephew  Seyyid  Achmet  Rufa,  who 
subsequently  founded  the-  Riifa'i— better  known  to 
Europeans  as  the  "  HowHng  Dervishes  " — on  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  conferred  the  faculty  of  miracu- 
lously heahng  the  wounds  which  the  devotees  of 
this  Order  inflict  upon  themselves  during  their 
extraordinary  religious  frenzies. 

In  the  following  century  the  gifted  mystic  poet 
Jelalu-'d-Din,  surnamed  "  Er  Rumi,"^  estabhshed 
at  Konieh,  the  capital  of  the  Seljoukian  Sultans, 
the  Order  of  the  Mevlevi — the  so-called  "  Dancing 
Dervishes,"  in  connection  with  the  Royal  College 
of  which  he  was  the  Principal.  After  the  incorpora- 
tion of  that  city  in  the  Ottoman  Empire  this  Society 
became  exceedingly  flourishing.  Endowed  and 
honoured  by  the  Ottoman  as  it  had  previously  been 
by  the  Seljoukian  Sultans,  and  constituting  as  it 
did  the  University  of  the  Empire,  state  dignitaries 

1  The  Story  of  Jewdd,  translated  by  E.  W.  Gibb. 

2  "  The  Roman,"  from  his  place  of  residence  in  Rom, 
the  Eastern  Empire,  which  retained  that  name  for  centuries 
after  the  Turkish  Conquest. 


THE  DERVISH  ORDERS  17 

were  proud  to  call  themselves  its  graduates,  and 
lay  members  of  the  Mevlevi  Order  of  Dervishes. 
Even  Grand  Viziers  did  not  disdain  to  don  the 
kulah  and  vestments  of  the  Brethren  of  Love,  and 
take  part  in  their  mystical  gyrations. 

Although,  as  above  remarked,  the  Sufi  principles 
enunciated  by  Bayazid  Bestemi  and  Djouneid  are 
professed  generally  by  the  higher  grades  among  the 
Dervishes,  some  of  the  Orders  hold  doctrines  more 
purely  mystical,  and  others  more  purely  pantheistic 
than  the  rest.  Of  the  more  purely  mystical,  the 
Nakshibendi  and  Khalveti  Orders  are  the  chief 
representatives.  Abu  Bekr,  the  first  Khahf,  is 
looked  upon  as  the  Pir,  or  founder  of  the  former 
Order,  and  AH,  the  third  Khahf,  of  the  latter. 
The  successful  estabHshment  of  other  communities 
having  caused  the  extinction  of  the  two  original 
Fraternities,  they  had  remained  unrepresented,  the 
former  until  the  thirteenth,  and  the  latter  until  the 
fourteenth  century,  when  Mohammed  of  Nakshibend 
and  Omer  Khalvet  respectively  founded  Orders 
which  assumed  their  names.  The  rule  observed  by 
the  Nakshibendi  Dervishes  is  held  to  be  in  strict 
accordance  with  that  instituted  by  Abu  Bekr,  and 
the  members  of  this  Order  five  in  their  own  homes 
and  pursue  their  ordinary  avocations,  meeting  only 
at  stated  times  for  the  performance  of  rehgious 
exercises.  And  though  devotion  does  not  in  Turkey 
at  the  present  day,  as  formerly,  engage  the  atten- 
tion of  men  of  all  ranks,  this  Order  has  remained  one 
of  the  most  numerous  and  popular  in  the  Empire. 


18  MYSTICISM   AND   MAGIC 

The  Order  of  the  Khalvetis,  although  professing 
to  be  a  revival  of  the  primitive  congregation  of  the 
Khalif  Ali,  practise  a  much  more  rigid  austerity 
than  was  compatible  with  the  rule  originally  observed 
of  remaining  in  the  world  and  fulfilhng  the  ordinary 
duties  of  citizens.  Its  members  undertake  to  live 
much  in  retirement,  and  to  devote  a  great  part  of 
their  time  to  solitary  contemplation.  A  legend  of 
this  Order  relates  that,  as  its  Pit  was  on  one  occasion 
leaving  his  cell  after  a  prolonged  period  of  mystical 
meditation,  he  heard  a  celestial  voice  behind  him 
saying,  "  O  Omer  Khalvet  !  Why  dost  thou  leave 
us  ?  "  and,  accepting  this  as  a  divine  injunction,  he 
resolved  to  consecrate  the  rest  of  his  days  to  such 
contemplation,  and  to  institute  an  Order  bearing 
his  name,  which  signifies  "  Retirement."  ^ 

The  Order  of  the  Bektashis  which,  in  addition  to 
its  numerous  adherents  among  the  Osmanlis,  is 
said  to  include  in  its  ranks  some  80,000  Albanian 
Moslems,  was  instituted  about  the  same  period  by 
Hadji  Bektash — "  Bektash  the  Pilgrim  " — one  of 
the  many  learned  men  whom  the  munificence  of  the 
early  Ottoman  Princes  attracted  to  Asia  Minor  from 
Khorassan.  Orchan,  who  is  said  to  have  attributed 
many  of  his  victories  to  the  presence  in  his  army  of 
this  holy  man,  built  for  him  at  Sivas  a  monastery 
and  college,  and  sought  his  approval  and  blessing  on 
every    undertaking.     And    when    the    Emir^    had 

^  J.  B.  Brown,   The  Dervishes. 

2  The  title  of  "  Sultan  "  was  not  assumed  by  the  earlier 
Ottoman  rulers,  who  styled  themselves  simply  "  Princes." 


THE  DERVISH   ORDERS  19 

enrolled  that  first  fair  young  band  of  Christian  boys 
which  was  destined  to  develop  into  "  the  strongest 
and  fiercest  instrument  of  imperial  ambition  ever 
devised  upon  earth,"  ^  he  led  them  to  the  abode  of 
the  saintly  Sheikh,  and  begged  of  him  to  bestow 
upon  them  his  blessing.  With  his  arm,  draped  in 
the  wide  sleeve  of  his  mantle,  stretched  over  the 
head  of  a  youth  in  the  front  rank,  Hadji  Bektash 
thus  addressed  the  Emir  : — 

"  The  troop  which  thou  hast  now  formed  shall  be 
called  Yeni  Sheri  ('New  Troop  ').  Their  faces  shall 
be  white  and  shining,  their  right  arms  strong,  their 
sabres  keen,  and  their  arrows  sharp.  They  shall  be 
fortunate  in  battle,  and  never  leave  the  field  save 
as  \dctors."  ^ 

The  Yeni  Sheri,  or  Janisseries,  in  consequence  of 
this  benediction,  remained,  until  the  destruction  of 
their  corps  in  1826,  closely  incorporated  with  the 
Order  founded  by  this  famous  Sheikh.  ^ 

The  various  Dervish  Orders  were  not,  it  would 
seem,  originally  designated,  as  now,  by  the  names 
of  their  respective  founders,  but  by  the  principles 
they  severally  professed ;  but  as  each  community  grew 
in  course  of  time  more  distinct  from  the  rest,  the 
name  of  the  Pir  was  adopted  to  distinguish  its 
members.  The  twelve  communities  which  existed 
at  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 

*  Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  pp.  14-15. 
2  Von  Hammer,  Histoire  de  I'Empire  Ottomane,  Vol.  II, 
p.   71. 

^  See  below,  p.  187. 


20  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

have  now  increased  to  thirty-six,  with  as  many 
subordinate  branches. 

The  Kalenderi  Dervishes,  or  "  Kalenders,"  as  they 
are  often  called  by  translators,  are  not,  strictly 
speaking,  an  Order,  as  they  are  not  descended  from 
either  of  the  original  congregations.  Their  founder, 
Kalender  Yussuf-Andalusi,  was  a  native  of  Anda- 
lusia, and  for  long  a  disciple  of  Sheikh  Hadji  Bektash, 
from  whose  brotherhood  he  was  finally  expelled  on 
account  of  his  overbearing  temper,  and  arrogant 
behaviour.  He  then  made  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  gain  admittance  to  the  Mevlevi  Order,  and  ended 
by  estabhshing  on  his  own  authority  a  Brother- 
hood the  rules  of  which  included  the  obligation  of 
perpetual  wandering,  and  of  entertaining  an 
eternal  hatred  against  the  Orders  from  which  he  had 
been  excluded.  The  title  of  Kalender ,  which  he 
assumed  and  bestowed  on  his  followers,  signifies 
"  pure,"  implying  the  purity  of  heart,  spirituality 
of  soul,  and  exemption  from  worldly  contamination 
which  Yussuf  required  in  his  disciples — qualities 
somewhat  at  variance,  one  might  suppose,  with  the 
above-mentioned  obligation.  This  same  title  of 
Kalender y  it  may  be  remarked,  is  also  given  to 
Dervishes  of  all  Orders  who  are  distinguished  among 
their  brethren  for  superior  spirituality.  It  is  this 
class  of  "  enhghtened "  beings  which  has  pro- 
duced so  many  dangerous  fanatics  in  every  age  of 
Mohammedanism.  From  it  have  come  the  assassins 
of  Sultans,  Viziers,  and  Grandees  of  the  Empire,  and 
all  the  unconscious  imposters  who,  under  the  title 


THE  DERVISH  ORDERS  21 

of  Mahdi,  have  misled  thousands  and  desolated 
whole  countries  by  their  supposed  prophecies  and 
divine  revelations. 

The  attainment  of  a  high  degree  of  sanctity  being 
thus  the  aim  of  every  true  Dervish,  he  seeks,  in 
order  to  attain  this,  to  lead  a  hfe  of  sinless  retirement 
from  the  world,  and  spends  his  days  and  nights  in 
prayer  and  meditation.  Fully  impressed  with  the 
possibility  of  ultimately  attaining  intimate  divine 
communion,  the  aspirant  after  it  looks  upon  every 
mundane  interest  as  unworthy  of  consideration  ; 
his  mind  becomes  more  and  more  completely  absorbed 
in  mystic  contemplation  ;  and  as  the  result  of 
his  constant  invocation  of  the  name  of  the  Deity, 
he  hears,  even  when  in  the  midst  of  a  noisy  crowd, 
no  other  sound  but  Allah  !  Allah  !  unless,  indeed, 
it  be  some  divine  command  addressed  to  him  in 
return.  The  more  destitute  a  Dervish  is  of  worldly 
goods,  the  fewer  are  his  ties  to  earth  ;  the  more 
emaciated  his  body  with  privation  and  fasting,  the 
greater  his  advance  in  spirituality ;  the  ills  of 
existence  affect  him  not,  and  death  has  for  him  no 
terrors.  His  solitude  is  cheered  by  the  presence  of 
angelic  visitors  who  impart  to  him  wondrous  things 
hidden  from  the  ken  of  ordinary  mortals.  Or  they 
are  the  bearers  of  direct  messages  from  the  Deity, 
who  thus  makes  known  to  his  servants  His  holy  Will 
concerning  men  ;  and  when  commanded  to  do  so, 
the  Dervish  fearlessly  denounces,  in  the  name  of 
Allah,  the  great  ones  of  the  earth  who,  by  their 
misdeeds,  have  incurred  the  divine  displeasure. 

3— (2 1 19) 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   SPIRITUAL   HIERARCHY 

"  A  Saint  is  aware  of  every  thought  of  the  King's  heart, 
and  of  every  secret  on  earth  or  in  heaven." — Saying  of 
Jelalu-'d-Din. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  Mohammed,  in  proclaiming 
himself  to  be  the  Messenger  of  Allah,  connected 
himself  with  the  past  as  the  Last  of  the  Prophets. 
The  Moslem  hierarchy  of  inspired  Seers  begins  with 
Adam,  and  includes  the  patriarchs  Noah  and 
Abraham  as  well  as  the  greater  Jewish  Prophets  and 
Christ,  each  successive  one  being  esteemed  greater 
than  his  predecessor.  But  in  addition  to  this 
historical  hierarchy  of  Prophets  there  exists,  in 
Moslem  belief,  another  of  an  entirely  mythical 
character — a  succession  of  saintly  beings  unto  whom 
the  Will  of  Allah  has  been  revealed,  and  through 
whose  instrumentality  the  destinies  of  mankind  are 
governed.  Supreme  among  these  Saints  of  the  Mos- 
lem Calendar  is  Khizr,  or  Khidhr-Elias,  a  mythical 
personage  who  from  time  immemorial  has  in  various 
forms  and  under  different  names,  filled  a  prominent 
place  in  the  religions  of  the  world.  This  protean 
Saint,  or  Demi-god,  appears  to  be  identifiable 
with  the  Prophet  Elijah,  or  Elias,  as  well  as  with  the 
Christian  St.  George,  who,  in  his  turn,  has  been 
identified  with   Horus.  ^     Khidhr  is  held   to  have 

^  Comp.  Lenormant,  Origines  ii,  p.  12  ;  Clermont- 
Ganneau,  Rev.  Arch,  xxx,  pp.  388-397  ;  Guyard,  Rev.  de 
VHistoire  des  Religions,  1880,  p.  344  ;  Gaston  Paris, 
Acad,  des  Inscriptions,  etc.,  1880,  pp.  91-116. 

22 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  23 

had  his  original  abode  in  the  terrestrial  Paradise 
which  contained  a  tree  of  Life  and  a  Fountain  of 
Life  ;  and  having  eaten  of  the  fruit  of  the  one  and 
drunk  of  the  water  of  the  other  he  became  immortal.  ^ 
As  the  wisest  of  created  beings,  he  was  consulted 
by  Moses,  who,  accompanied  by  Joshua,  journeyed 
to  a  place  where  two  rivers  met,  or,  according  to 
other  writers,  to  an  "  Isle  of  the  Isles  of  the  sea," 
where  they  found  the  Sage  from  whom  Moses 
received  the  secret  of  the  "  True  Path."  ^  Another 
legend  gives  the  following  account  of  this  journey  :— 

"  The  prophet  of  Israel,  in  one  of  his  interviews 
with  Allah  on  Mount  Sinai,  prayed  for  wisdom  to 
comprehend  the  hidden  mysteries.  '  That  is  too 
hard  a  matter  for  thee,'  replied  the  Almighty.  But 
on  the  Prophet's  insisting,  He  relented  and  said, 
*  Make  then  for  thyself  iron  shoes  and  get  ready  a 
cooked  fish.  Then  set  out.  Thou  wilt  walk  until 
the  shoes  are  worn  out  and  the  fish  has  returned 
to  hfe,  and  then  wilt  thou  find  the  man  who  shall 
instruct  thee  in  the  knowledge  of  mysteries.' 

"  Moses  did  as  the  Lord  bade  him,  and,  accom- 
panied by  St.  John  the  Baptist,  he  set  out.  In  the 
evening  Moses  and  John  ate  some  of  the  fish,  yet  the 
next  day  they  found  it  again  whole.    After  a  long 

1  This  "  Water,"  "  Fountain,"  "  Stream,"  or  "  River  of 
Life,"  said  to  exist  in  a  Land  of  Darkness  in  the  extreme 
East,  is  an  Oriental  myth  alluded  to  in  Revelations  xxii.  1, 
and  often  made  use  of  by  Ottoman  and  Persian  poets. 
It  frequently  occurs  also  in  the  folk-tales  of  South-Eastern 
Europe. 

2  See  p.  104. 


24  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

journey  they  arrived  at  a  spot  where  two  seas  met. 
Moses  lay  down  to  sleep,  and  John  was  watching 
over  him,  when  suddenly  a  drop  of  spray  fell  on  the 
fish,  which  immediately  came  to  life  again  and 
plunged  into  the  sea.  When  Moses  awoke  he  set 
out  again  with  John,  who  had  told  him  nothing  of 
the  resuscitated  fish.  Towards  evening  they  stopped 
to  eat,  but  the  fish  was  not  there.  St.  John  then 
revealed  what  he  had  seen,  and  Moses  returned  to 
the  place  where  the  fish  had  leapt  into  the  sea. 
There  they  found  a  man  l3nng  on  the  ground.  Moses 
saluted  him  respectfully,  and  the  prostrate  man 
returned  his  salute,  sa3dng,  '  Health  to  thee,  Moses, 
my  father.' 

"  '  Who  told  thee  that  I  am  Moses  ?  ' 

"  '  Allah,  who  has  sent  me  to  thee.' 

*'  This  man  was  Khidhr.  '  What  wilt  thou  with 
me  ?  '  he  asked. 

"  '  I  will  that  thou  instruct  me  in  the  knowledge 
of  mysteries.  I  will  follow  thee  wherever  thou 
goest.' 

"  '  Thou  canst  not  follow  me,'  said  Khidhr,  '  nor 
art  thou  able  to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  mysteries.' 

"  '  I  will  follow  thee,  and  I  will  strive  to  learn  of 
thee.' 

"  '  Thou  mayest  follow  me  on  one  condition  only 
— that  thou  meddle  not  in  my  business.' 

"  Moses  accepted  the  condition.  Then,  sending 
back  John  the  Baptist  to  his  own  country,  Moses 
and  Khidhr  asked  for  passage  on  board  a  ship  which 
was  about  to  set  sail.    The  two  men  had  no  money, 


THE   SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  25 

and  their  clothes  were  ragged.  The  captain  at  first 
refused  to  take  them  on  board,  but  finally  yielded 
to  their  soHcitations,  and  allowed  them  to  sail  with 
him. 

"  After  a  long  voyage  they  arrived  in  a  port ;  but 
before  going  ashore  Khidhr  made  a  great  hole  in 
the  vessel  in  which  he  had  had  a  free  passage. 

"  '  What  injustice  !  what  wickedness  ! '  thought 
Moses  to  himself. 

*'  Khidhr,  who  reads  the  hearts  of  men,  remarked 
to  him,  '  Said  I  not  to  thee  that  the  knowledge  of 
mysteries  is  difficult  to  acquire,  and  hast  thou  not 
promised  to  meddle  not  in  my  affairs  ?  ' 

"  Moses  held  his  peace. 

"  As  they  passed  through  a  town,  Khidhr  perceived 
in  a  lonely  spot  a  beautiful  child  asleep,  and  cut  off 
its  head.  The  soul  of  Moses  revolted  against  this 
crime,  but  he  said  nothing.  They  left  the  town, 
and  came  to  the  country.  Seeing  a  wall  about  to 
fall  in  ruins,  Khidhr  straightened  it,  and,  with  the 
help  of  Moses,  left  it  in  good  repair. 

"  'What  folly,'  thought  Moses  to  himself,  '  Khidhr 
kills  an  innocent  child,  and  then  repairs  an  old 
ruined  wall  in  the  fields  !  * 

"  Khidhr  was  aware  of  the  reflections  of  Moses. 
'  You  find  unjust,'  he  said,  '  the  deeds  I  have  done 
in  your  company;  you  are  blaming  me.  I  will 
explain  to  thee  the  motives  of  my  conduct  :  Listen  ! 
I  scuttled  the  vessel  in  which  we  had  a  free  passage. 
It  belongs  to  five  persons  of  whom  three  are  orphans 
under  age  whose  sole  Uvehhood  is  the  profit  they 


26  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

derive  from  it.  In  the  city  where  we  landed  is  a 
tyrant  who  seizes  upon  every  sound  vessel  which 
enters  the  port.  The  vessel  which  brought  us, 
being  unsound,  he  has  let  go  on  her  way. 

**  '  I  cut  off  the  head  of  the  sleeping  child  because, 
had  he  grown  up,  he  would  have  been  the  cause  of 
great  misfortunes  to  his  country  and  to  its  religion. 

"  '  We  mended  the  ruined  wall,  and  that  seemed  to 
thee  labour  thrown  away.  This  wall  belongs  to 
some  young  children,  and  conceals  a  hidden  treasure. 
Had  it  fallen  down,  the  first  passer-by  would  have 
found  this  treasure  ;  it  will  now  stand  firm  till  the 
children  are  grown  up,  and  they  will  enjoy  their 
own. 

"  '  I  told  thee  that  thou  wert  not  able  to  follow  me, 
or  to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  mysteries.  Said  I 
not  truly?     Go  thou  on  thy  way.' 

"  And  Khidhr  disappeared." 

Khidhr  is  also  credited  in  Moslem  behef  with 
having  led  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt  and  guided 
them  through  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Desert,  taking 
the  place  of  the  "  pillars  of  cloud  and  of  fire  "  in 
the  Biblical  account  of  this  incident.  Moslems  also 
hold  that  Khidhr-EHas,  as  he  is  often  termed,  though 
really  one  single  individual,  has  a  dual  personality. 
He  is  regarded  as  the  special  protector  of  travellers, 
being  invoked  under  the  former  name  by  those 
journejdng  on  the  sea,  and  under  the  latter  by  those 
journeying  on  land.  Both  parts  of  this  dual  person- 
age are  believed  to  be  perpetually  wandering  over 
the  world,    Khidhr   on    the  sea,  and  Elias  on  the 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  27 

land,  and  to  meet  once  a  year  at  Mina,  near  Mekka, 
on  the  day  of  the  "  Station  of  the  Pilgrims."  He 
is  thus  connected  with  St.  Nicholas,  who  performs 
the  same  good  offices  for  the  Greeks,  and  is  the 
special  patron  of  sailors.^  St.  Nicholas  is  also 
further  confounded  with^HXto?,  with  Ah,  the  nephew 
of  the  Prophet,  and  with  Phineas,  the  immortal 
hero  of  Talmudic  legend  who  is  credited  with  the  per- 
formance of  twelve  miracles,  and,  according  to  that 
authority,  destined,  hke  Ehas,  to  play  an  important 
part  at  the  end  of  the  world.  This  behef  would 
appear  to  be  illustrated  in  the  question  addressed 
to  Jesus  by  his  disciples  :  **  Why  say  the  Scribes 
that  Ehas  must  first  come  ?  "  and  in  His  answer 
that  "  Ehas  is  come  already  and  they  knew  him 
not,"  2  as  also  in  the  popular  Eastern  behef  in  the 
periodic  incarnation  of  this  mythical  being. 

Numerous  instances  are  recorded  in  Moslem 
literature  and  legend  of  the  sudden  appearances  and 
disappearances  of  Khidhr-Elias.  By  many  he  is 
held  to  be  always  visibly  present  somewhere  on  the 
earth,  and  like  his  prototype  the  Tishbite,  is  often 
"  carried  by  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  "  from  place  to 
place.  Could  he  be  recognised,  a  knowledge  of  the 
secret  of  immortality  might  be  demanded  of  him  ; 
but  it  is  only  a  saintly  man  who  can  distinguish 
Khidhr  from  another.     A  Moslem  desirous  of  an 

1  A  Greek  couplet  says  of  this  Saint : — 

He  to  our  aid  comes  on  the  sea, 
And  on  the  land  works  wondrously. 

2  Matt.  xvii.  10,  12. 


28  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

interview  with  this  mysterious  being,  must,  accord- 
ing to  Turkish  popular  behef,  perform  his  devotions 
during  forty  consecutive  days  under  the  central 
dome  of  the  mosque  of  St.  Sofia  at  Constantinople, 
and  on  the  fortieth  day  he  is  certain  to  be  rewarded 
with  a  sight  of  Khidhr-Ehas.  Evliya  Effendi, 
"  The  Traveller,"  himself  a  member  of  a  distin- 
guished Dervish  family,  declares  in  his  Narrative  ^ 
that  "  thousands  of  holy  men  have  here  enjoyed 
the  happiness  of  converse  with  that  great  Prophet." 
And  many  are  the  quaint  and  fantastic  legends 
current  in  the  Turkish  capital  concerning  interviews 
with  this  **  Master  of  Secrets."  2 

One  of  these  legends  relates  that  a  pious  Turk 
who  had  undertaken  the  quest  of  Khidhr,  met,  on 
the  fortieth  day,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mosque,  a 
stranger,  who  said  to  him,  "  The  mosque  is  not  yet 
open  ;  Why  comest  thou  to  disturb  the  sleep  of  its 
guardians  ?  " 

"  I  come  to  seek  Khidhr,"  he  rephed. 

"  Dost  thou  know  him  ?  " 

"  I  know  him  not." 

"  Then  follow  me,  and  I  will  show  him  to  thee." 

Khidhr — for  it  was  indeed  he  whom  the  True 
Behever  had  met— went  on  before  him,  and  the 
pious  man  observed  that  his  feet  left  an  imprint  on 
the  stones  over  which  he  walked. 

^  Narrative  of  Travels,  p.  60. 

2  One  of  these,  more  marvellous  even  than  the  following, 
is  given  by  Evliya  Effendi,  who  concludes  it  with  the 
remark — "  The  proof  rests  with  the  relater."  Part  I, 
pp.  60-63. 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  29 

"  Dost  thou  know  what  Khidhr  can  do  ?  "  asked 
the  stranger. 

'*  No,"  repHed  the  pious  man. 

**  Khidhr  can  thrust  his  finger  into  stone  even  as 
I  do." 

His  finger  entered  the  stone  as  he  spoke,  and  the 
stone  "  perspired  "  abundantly.  ^ 

"  When  thou  seest  a  man  who  does  wonders  such 
as  these,  say  to  thyself,  '  This  is  Khidhr  ! '  and  hold 
him  fast." 

"  I  will  not  fail,"  he  repHed,  and  his  companion 
disappeared. 

The  pious  man  entered  the  mosque  and  related 
his  adventure  to  its  guardians. 

"  'Twas  Khidhr  himself  !  "  they  cried.  "  If  thou 
see  him  again,  fail  not  to  hold  him  fast,  and  let  him 
go  only  when  he  has  fulfilled  thy  desire." 

The  man  performed  his  devotions  in  the  mosque 
for  another  forty  days,  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
fortieth  he  met  a  stranger  who  accosted  him  as  the 
other  had  done. 

**  I  would  see  Khidhr,"  he  again  rephed. 

"  What  seekest  thou  from  him  ?  "  asked  the 
stranger. 

Then  the  pious  man  concluded  that  this  was 
indeed  Khidhr,  and  he  seized  and  held  him  fast. 

"  I  am  not  Khidhr,"  said  the  stranger. 

1  Stones  into  which  Khidhr  is  beheved  to  have  thrust 
his  finger  are  held  to  cure  those  afflicted  with  profuse 
perspiration.  The  sufferer  inserts  his  finger  into  the  cavity, 
strokes  with  it  his  forehead  and  eyehds,  and,  it  is  confidently 
asserted,  "  goes  away  cured." 


30  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

"  Yea,  thou  art  he  !  " 

"  I  am  not.  Suffer  me  to  go  on  my  way,  and  I 
will  show  thee  Khidhr." 

"  Yea,  thou  art  indeed  Khidhr,"  insisted  the  pious 
man.  "  Fulfil  my  desire,  or  I  will  proclaim  aloud 
who  thou  art  and  others  will  then  hkewise  seize  and 
hold  thee." 

'*  I  tell  thee  again  I  am  not  he  whom  thou  seekest. 
Thou  wilt  see  Khidhr  on  Friday  in  the  mosque  at 
the  hour  of  the  noontide  namaz.  He  who  shall 
place  himself  on  thy  right  hand  at  the  moment  the 
pubHc  prayers  begin  will  be  Khidhr  ;  hold  him  fast." 
So  saying,  the  stranger  disappeared. 

Friday  came,  and  the  True  Believer  repaired  to 
the  mosque  of  St.  Sofia  for  the  noontide  prayer.  Just 
as  the  service  was  beginning,  a  man,  dressed  as  an 
Usher  of  the  Subhme  Porte,  placed  himself  on  his 
right.  As  they  came  out  of  the  mosque  the  pious 
man  seized  the  Usher,  sa5ang, 

"  Thou  art  Khidhr  !     I  will  not  let  thee  go  !  " 

The  Usher  stoutly  denied  that  he  was  other  than 
his  dress  betokened  him,  and  did  his  best  to  get 
away  from  the  pious  man.  A  long  struggle  ensued. 
The  two  men  wrestled,  fell,  and  rose  again,  until 
they  came  to  the  cemetery  outside  the  Adrianople 
gate  of  the  city.  The  window  of  a  turhe  ^  stood  open, 
and  the  usher  chmbed  through  it,  closely  followed 
by  the  pious  man,  who  still  held  on  to  his  clothing, 
and  after  various  turns,  they  came  into  a  splendid 

^  The  mausoleum  erected  over  the  tomb  of  a  reputed 
saint.     Many  famous  Dervishes  are  buried  in  this  cemetery. 


■Ia|. 


A   WANDERING   DERVISH 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  31 

subterranean  hall.  Round  it  were  ranged  forty 
sheepskin  mats,  thirty-eight  of  which  were  occupied 
by  venerable-looking  men.  The  stranger  was  the 
chief  of  the  Forty,  one  of  whom  had  just  died,  and 
the  pious  man  was  allowed  to  take  his  place. 

"  Thou  mayst  seat  thee  on  any  mat  thou  wilt 
save  that  which  is  reserved  to  me,  said  the  Usher, 
who  was  the  Sheikh  of  the  Forty,  as  he  and  his 
companions  prepared  to  go  out  on  the  morrow. 

The  pious  man  obeyed,  and  remained  in  the 
underground  dwelhng  for  eight  days,  during  which 
he  was  left  alone  from  morning  until  sunset.  But 
on  the  eighth  day  the  True  BeUever,  moved  by 
curiosity,  seated  himself  on  the  sheepskin  of  the 
Chief.  Suddenly  he  saw  as  in  one  glance  the  whole 
world  with  everything  in  and  upon  it,  even  to  the 
innermost  thoughts  of  men,  and  was  filled  with 
wonder  and  dehght.  As  the  hour  for  the  return 
of  the  thirty-nine  approached,  he  took  another  seat, 
where  they  found  him. 

"  What  hast  thou  done  ?  "  they  demanded  in 
voices  of  thunder. 

"  I  have  done  naught." 

"  Yea,  thou  didst  sit  in  the  forbidden  seat." 

"  Nay,  I  did  not,"  mendaciously  rephed  the  pious 
man. 

But  scarcely  had  he  said  the  words  than  the  hall 
became  dark,  and  he  found  himself  again  in  the 
cemetery  outside  the  Adrianople  gate. 

An  anecdote  recorded  by  Eflaki  ^  as  a  proof  of  the 

1  Acts  of  the  Adepts,  Redhouse's  Mesnevi,  p.  78. 


32  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

exceptional  spiritual  gifts  of  Jelalii-'d-Din  also 
illustrates  the  same  belief  regarding  Khidhr,  When 
this  great  Dervish  poet  was  still  quite  young,  he 
was  one  day  preaching  on  the  subject  of  Moses  and 
EHas.  ^  During  the  discourse  one  of  his  disciples 
noticed  a  stranger  seated  in  a  comer  pa5dng  great 
attention,  and  every  now  and  then  exclaiming, 
"  Good  !  "  "  Quite  true  !  "  "  Quite  correct !  "  "  He 
might  have  been  the  Third  with  Us  Two  !  "  etc. 
It  occurred  to  the  disciple  that  this  might  be  Khidhr- 
Ehas.  He  therefore  grasped  his  garment,  and  begged 
for  his  spiritual  aid. 

"  Oh  !  "  said  the  stranger,  "  seek  aid  rather  from 
your  master,  as  we  all  do.  Every  mystic  saint  of 
Allah  is  the  loving  and  admiring  friend  of  Jelal." 

So  saying,  he  disengaged  his  robe  from  the 
disciple's  grasp,  and  instantly  vanished. 

The  Murtd  then  went  to  pay  his  respects  to  his 
master,  who  at  once  addressed  him  with  the  words, 
"  Ehas  and  Moses  and  the  Prophets  are  all  friends 
of  mine.'*  The  Dervish  understood  the  allusion, 
and  became  thereafter  a  still  more  ardent  follower 
of  his  Sheikh. 

According  to  the  mystical  canon,  there  are  always 
on  earth  a  certain  number  of  holy  men  who  are 
admitted  to  intimate  communion  with  the  Deity. 
The  one  who  occupies  the  highest  position  among 
his  contemporaries  is  called  the  "  Axis  "  (Qutb)  or 
"  Pole  "  of  his  time.  As  EUas  was  in  his  day  an 
"  Axis,"  and  indeed  as  such  held  a  higher  spiritual 

1  Koran,  Chap,  xviii.  59-81. 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  33 

rank  than  all  other  Qutbs,  it  is  his  privilege  to  appoint 
his  successors  in  office.  This  prevalent  behef  accords 
curiously  with  the  bibhcal  story  of  his  investiture 
of  Ehsha  with  his  own  miraculous  powers  and  offices, 
and  of  the  subjection  of  all  contemporary  Prophets 
to  both  in  turn,  and  forms  a  strong  hnk  in  the  chain 
with  which  the  Dervishes  connect  their  doctrines 
and  powers  with  those  of  the  Prophets,  Seers,  and 
Patriarchs  of  old.  These  "  Poles "  are  quite 
unrecognisable  as  such,  save  by  other  holy  men,  and 
may  belong  to  any  rank  in  hfe,  as  is  illustrated 
in  the  following  story  told  by  Evhya  Effendi. 

When  the  terrible  conqueror,  Timour  the  Tartar, 
was  marching  against  Broussa,  the  alarmed  inhabi- 
tants asked  the  eminent  Dervish,  Emir  Sultan,  ^ 
who  resided  there,  what  would  be  the  fate  of  their 
city.  The  Sheikh  rephed  that,  as  Broussa  was 
under  the  special  protection  of  Khidhr  and  of 
Eskedji  Hodja,^  these  holy  men  must  be  informed 
of  the  approach  of  the  enemy.  He  accordingly  sent 
a  letter  by  the  hand  of  one  of  his  Dervishes  to 
Eskedji  Hodja,  who  was  found  in  the  Tartar  camp. 
When  the  Saint,  who  was  busy  mending  a  torn 
garment,  had  read  the  missive,  he  stuck  his  needle 
into  his  turban,  exclaiming,  "  Emir  Sultan  shall  be 
obeyed  !  "  and  before  he  had  finished  putting  his 
work  into  his  bag,  the  camp  was,  at  his  unuttered 

1  Complimentary  titles  of  "  Pasha,"  "Emir,"  or  "  Sultan  " 
were  frequently  bestowed  on  learned  men  in  the  palmy  days 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire.     See  pp.  61  and  167. 

2  Literally  "  The  Patching-tailor  Parson." 


34  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

command,  broken  up.  "  For,'*  adds  the  narrator, 
"  this  old  tailor  was  a  Qutbj  a  *  Pole  of  Poles,*  and 
a  Chief  among  Saints." 

Subordinate  to  the  Qtltb  are  two  holy  beings  who 
bear  the  title  of  '*  The  Faithful  Ones,"  and  are 
assigned  places  on  his  right  and  left  respectively. 
Below  these  is  a  quartette  of  "  Intermediate  Ones  " 
{Evtdd) ;  and  on  successively  lower  planes  are  five 
"  Lights "  (Envdr),  and  seven  "  Very  Good " 
(Akhydr).  The  next  rank  is  filled  by  forty  *'  Absent 
Ones "  (Rijal-i-ghaib),  also  termed  *'  Martyrs " 
(Shuheda).  When  an  "  Axis "  quits  this  earthly 
existence,  he  is  succeeded  by  the  "  Faithful  One  " 
who  has  occupied  the  place  at  his  right  hand,  and 
the  vacancies  thus  caused  are  filled  up  from  the 
successive  ranks. 

"  The  Absent  Ones  "  are  said  to  have  a  circular 
plan,  or  map,  of  the  world,  having  for  its  centre 
the  holy  city  of  Mekka.  It  is  divided  into  thirty 
sections  corresponding  with  the  days  of  the  Moham- 
medan month,  and  on  it  are  also  denoted  the  points 
of  the  compass.  The  Forty  set  out  from  Mekka 
every  morning  in  the  direction  indicated  by  their 
map  for  that  day,  returning  before  the  end  of 
twenty-four  hours  to  make  their  report  to  the 
"  Axis."  Any  one  possessing  a  copy  of  their  map 
can,  by  consulting  it,  ascertain  where  the  "  Absent 
Ones  "  may  be  found  at  a  given  time,  and  by  placing 
himself  in  their  path  may  obtain  from  them  what- 
ever spiritual  boon  he  may  desire.  For  to  these  holy 
men,  who  also  bear  the  collective  titles  of    "  Lords 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  35 

of  Souls,"  and  "  Directors,  ^  is  committed  a  spiritual 
supremacy  over  mankind  far  exceeding  the  temporal 
authority  of  earthly  rulers.  The  transactions  and 
designs  of  every  individual  are  believed  to  be  under 
their  control,  and  must  receive  their  approval,  or 
at  least  permission,  before  they  can  be  carried  into 
effect .  For  they  are  the  Deputies  of  the  Prophets  and 
Saints  who  have  left  the  world,  and  to  them  is 
divulged  the  will  of  Allah  with  regard  to  the  actions 
of  men. 

According  to  Mr.  Lane's  ^  account  of  these  mystical 
beings  the  **  Axis'*  is,  Hke  Khidhr,  "  often  seen,  but 
not  recognised  as  such  ;  and  the  same  is  said  of  all 
who  hold  authority  under  him.  He  always  has  a 
humble  demeanour  and  mean  dress,  and  mildly 
reproves  those  whom  he  finds  acting  impiously, 
particularly  those  who  have  a  false  reputation  for 
sanctity.  Though  he  is  unknown  to  the  world,  his 
favourite  stations  are  well  known,  yet  at  these  places 
he  is  seldom  visible.  It  is  asserted  that  he  is  almost 
constantly  seated  on  the  roof  of  the  Ka'abah  ;  and 
though  never  seen  there,  is  always  heard  at  mid- 
night to  cry  twice,  '  O  Thou  most  merciful  of  those 

^  Sadi  thus  refers  in  his  Gulistan  to  these  mystical  beings. 
(I  quote  from  Mr.  Davis's  translation.) 

A  group  of  Directors,  in  lonely  retreat, 

With  their  breath  full  of  fire,  although  earthly  their  feet — 

They  root  up  a  hill  from  its  site,  with  a  cry  ; 

And  a  kingdom  demolish  at  once,  with  a  sigh. 

Like  the  wind  they're  unseen,  and  of  hurricane  speed  ; 

Like  stones  they  are  silent,  and  rosaries  read. 

^  The  Modern  Egyptians, 


36  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

who  show  mercy  ! '  which  cry  is  then  repeated  by 
the  Moeddins  from  the  minarets  of  the  temple  ;  but 
a  respectable  pilgrim,  whom  I  have  just  questioned 
upon  this  matter,  has  confessed  to  me  that  he 
himself  has  witnessed  that  this  cry  is  made  by  a 
regular  minister  of  the  mosque,  yet  that  few  pilgrims 
know  this  :  he  believes,  however,  that  the  roof  of 
the  Ka'abah  is  the  chief  station  of  the  'Axis.' 
Another  favourite  resort  of  this  revered  and 
unknown  person  is  the  gate  of  Cairo.  Though  he  has 
a  number  of  favourite  stations,  he  does  not  abide 
solely  at  these,  but,  hke  Khidhr,  wanders  through 
the  world,  among  persons  of  every  rehgion,  whose 
appearance,  dress,  and  language  he  assumes  ;  and 
distributes  to  mankind,  chiefly  through  the  agency 
of  the  subordinate  Welees,  the  evils  and  blessings 
apportioned  to  each  by  his  Kismet.^^ 

Mr.  J.  P.  Brown  also  describes  an  encounter 
which  a  Dervish  friend  of  his  had  with  one  of 
these  "  Lords  of  Souls,"  or,  as  he  terms  them, 
"  Spiritual  Owners,"  while  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
tomb  of  the  Khahf  Ah.  His  name  was  Jemel-ed- 
Din  of  Kufa,  and  the  Dervish  described  him  as  a 
person  of  middle  stature,  perfectly  naked,  with 
scanty  hair  and  beard,  of  feeble  frame,  and 
apparently  some  forty  to  fifty  years  of  age.  When 
the  Dervish  came  up  with  him  in  the  desert  and 
ahghted  from  his  horse  for  the  purpose  of  offering 
his  homage,  the  saint  turned  round  suddenly,  and 
cried  in  a  loud  voice,  "  Go  to  Allah  1  "  The  pilgrim 
was  too  startled  and  frightened  to  kiss  the  hand  of 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  37 

the  holy  man  as  he  had  intended,  and  returned 
to  Kufa,  which  place  he  had  passed  on  his  way. 
On  enquiring  at  the  mosque  there  for  the  abode  of 
this  Saint,  he  was  shown  a  spot  near  the  tomb  of 
the  Khahf  Ah's  nephew,  where  he  was  said  to  sleep 
on  a  mat  of  date-palm  leaves,  with  a  stem  for  his 
pillow.  The  Dervish  asked  how  he  was  supported, 
and  in  what  way  he  passed  his  time  ;  but  could 
obtain  no  further  information  about  him,  save  that 
he  came  there  every  night  to  sleep,  and  left  again 
in  the  morning  for  the  desert.  This  person,  it 
appears,  died  in  1882  (A.H.  1260,)  and  has  been 
succeeded  in  his  saintly  rank  by  an  individual  of 
the  name  of  Beder  ed  Din,  who  will  Hve  till  1902 
(A.H.  1280)  when  the  "  Last  of  the  Saints  "  will 
take  his  place.  ^ 

Below  the  "  Absent  Ones  "  is  another  class  of 
saints  called  Abddls,  from  among  whom  the  higher 
ranks  are  recruited  as  vacancies  occur.  These 
persons  would,  I  fear,  in  more  highly  civihsed 
countries  be  termed  idiots  or  lunatics.  Orientals, 
however,  treat  with  reverence  what  they  cannot 
explain  ;  and,  according  to  the  popular  behef,  the 
Abddls  are  beings  so  holy  that  their  souls  have 
already  found  their  way  to  heaven,  and  their  bodies 
are  consequently  left  on  earth  without  the  guidance 
of  ordinary  reason.  As  none  but  Allah  knows  who 
has  in  reahty  been  promoted  to  fill  the  place  of  a 
defunct  "  Absent  One,"  any  Abddl  may  be  credited 
with  that  honour.     The  result  of  this  reputation 

1  The  Dervishes. 

4- (2119) 


38  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

for  sanctity  enjoyed  by  Ahddls  is  that  they  are 
allowed  to  wander  at  large  over  the  country,  some- 
times half  clad,  sometimes  completely  naked, 
following  the  bent  of  their  errant  fancies  ;  and  the 
wilder  and  more  extraordinary  their  vagaries,  the 
greater  is  their  renown  for  virtue  and  hohness. 
They  are  no  respecters  of  persons,  but  denounce 
with  impunity  high  and  low,  pasha  or  peasant,  who 
may  chance  to  incur  their  anger  or  dislike  ;  and 
though  the  more  enhghtened  portion  of  the  pubhc 
may  estimate  these  maniacs  at  their  just  value, 
they  will  at  the  same  time  avoid  any  coUision 
with  them,  as  their  abusive  threats  when  excited 
are  attributed  by  the  ignorant  to  divine 
inspiration. 

Many  of  those,  however,  who  are  termed  Ahddls, 
or  Perishdns,  are  in  full  enjoyment  of  all  their 
faculties,  but,  possessed  by  an  aversion  for  their 
fellow-men,  shun  their  abodes,  and,  like  the  hermits 
of  Christendom,  retire  to  mountains  and  deserts 
where,  fed  perhaps  on  ''  locusts  and  wild  honey  " 
— though  the  popular  behef  credits  them  with  the 
faculty  of  being  able  to  dispense  altogether  with 
food — they  live  in  harmony  with  wild  animals 
whose  fierceness  or  timidity  they  overcome  by  means 
of  their  wonderful  spiritual  powers. 

A  succession  of  famous  Ahddls  has  existed  in 
Turkey  extending  from  the  time  of  the  conquest  to 
the  present  day,  and  the  renown  of  many  has  been 
so  great  that  we  find  their  sayings  and  doings 
chronicled  by  the  historians  and  writers  of  their 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  39 

times.  During  the  reign  of  Sultan  Orchan,  the  most 
famous  were  Abddl  Mousa  and  Abddl  Murad,  who 
were  with  the  army  at  the  conquest  of  Broussa, 
and  whose  tombs  in  that  city  are  still  visited  by 
devout  pilgrims.  The  "  Sultan  of  all  Saint-fools," 
commonly  called  Sabah-Sabah,  was,  according  to 
Evhya  Effendi,^  the  son  of  a  sergeant  of  the  Jani- 
series,  and  hved  in  the  reign  of  Mohammed  IV. 
Having  foretold  his  father's  death  on  the  day  before 
it  took  place,  the  word  Sabah  (to-morrow)  was 
retained  by  him  as  his  nickname.  During  the  Grand 
Vizierate  of  Kara  Mustapha,  he  one  day  made  a 
great  disturbance  at  the  Divan  by  clamouring  for 
the  hberation  of  his  mother,  who  had  been  impris- 
oned for  smoking  tobacco,  a  practice,  it  would 
appear,  not  then  permitted  to  women.  "  Release," 
he  cried,  "  the  women,  and  imprison  the  men  if 
you  will,  for  I  have  no  father."  "  Thus,"  adds  the 
narrator,  *'  he  got  his  mother  released." 

Among  the  many  Saints  and  other  Dervishes  who 
accompanied  the  army  of  Mohammed  III  in  his 
campaign  into  Hungary,  was  an  individual  who 
held  a  Colonel's  commission.  When  the  war  was 
over  he  was  speechless  for  seven  years,  and  then 
was  only  heard  to  repeat  the  words  Yetmish  grush 
(seventy  piastres),  by  which  name  he  was  thereafter 
called.  He,  however,  subsequently  prophesied  to 
Sultan  Murad  IV  that  he  would  take  Erivan  and 
lose  it  again  within  seven  days.  This  Sultan  was 
known  to  assert  that,  though   "Yetmish  grush'* 

*  Narrative  of  Travel. 


40  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

had  remained  behind  in  Constantinople,  he  per- 
petually heard  in  the  camp  the  prophetic  words  of 
the  Ahddl.  This  saintly  personage  affected  the 
dress  of  a  soldier  of  the  Bosnian  frontier,  and 
possessed  the  strange  faculty  of  walking  about  the 
muddy  streets  of  the  capital  without  soiling  even 
the  soles  of  his  babouches — a  miraculous  feat,  indeed, 
if  the  state  of  the  streets  in  wet  weather  was  then 
anything  like  what  it  is  at  the  present  day. 

Another  famous  Abddl  of  those  times,  Durmich 
D6d6h,  frequented  the  Castle  of  Rumili,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  sailors  were  in 
the  habit  of  propitiating  him  on  their  arrival  in  port 
with  an  oka  (about  2|-  lbs.)  of  meat.  He  advised 
ship  captains  concerning  the  voyages  they  were 
about  to  make.  If  they  followed  his  counsel,  it 
turned  to  their  advantage  ;  but  if  they  disregarded 
it,  ill  luck  was  sure  to  accompany  them.  Those 
who  passed  him  on  their  way  to  the  Divan  were  also 
forewarned,  by  his  behaviour  towards  them,  whether 
they  were  or  were  not  likely  to  prosper  that  day 
in  their  suits  at  law.  ^ 

That  this  canonisation  of  persons  of  weak  intellect 
still  continues,  will  be  seen  from  the  following  story, 
as  related  to  Lady  Blunt  and  myself  by  Sheikh  Ah, 
a  Bektashi  of  Salonica.  I  give,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
a  literal  translation  of  his  own  words  : — 

**  My  younger  brother  had  been,  from  his  child- 
hood, of  an  erratic  and  unmanageable  disposition. 
It  was  impossible  to  teach  him  anything,  and  he 

^  Narrative  of  Travel. 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  41 

spent  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  roaming  from 
village  to  village,  fed  by  the  charitable,  but  housed 
I  know  not  how,  and  occasionally  returning  home 
to  me  for  a  few  days.  As  he  grew  older,  he  became 
confirmed  in  these  wandering  habits,  and  was  seldom 
at  home.  He  returned  one  day  from  a  prolonged 
excursion  complaining  that  he  felt  unwell,  and 
asked  to  be  allowed  to  he  down  in  my  room.  He 
was  very  thirsty  and  feverish,  and  ere  long  smallpox 
declared  itself.  The  elders  of  the  Tekkeh,  at  my 
request,  came  in  and  prayed  over  him.  When  they 
had  finished,  he  smiled,  thanked  them,  and  requested 
that  they  would  come  again  in  four  days*  time,  at 
the  same  hour,  for  on  that  day,  at  noon,  he  would 
die.  The  Dervishes,  deeply  affected,  promised  to 
do  as  he  wished,  and  withdrew.  For  the  next  three 
days  he  was  unconscious,  his  sight  failed,  and  I  saw 
that  his  case  was  hopeless.  On  the  fourth  day,  at 
the  hour  he  had  mentioned,  he  came  to  himself,  and 
asked  me  to  send  for  the  Brethren.  I  did  so,  and 
they  again  prayed  over  him.  Then,  turning  to  me, 
he  said,  '  My  brother,  I  have  been  a  sore  burden  to 
you  all  my  hfe.  I  pray  you,  make  me  heldl^  (free 
gift)  of  all  the  bread  I  have  eaten  at  your  hands,  so 
that  I  may  depart  in  peace.'  I  made  the  heldl, 
holding  the  poor  saint's  head  on  my  knees.  He 
then  said,  '  I  am  content,'  and  breathed  his  last 

1  One  of  the  ceremonies  at  a  Moslem  funeral  is  the  giving 
of  heldl  by  the  friends  and  relatives  of  the  defunct.  It 
conveys  pardon  for  any  offence  committed  towards  them, 
and  is  the  Moslem  equivalent  for  the  Christian  requiescat  in 
pace. 


42  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

just  as  the  clock  struck  the  hour  of  noon.  My 
community  pronounced  him  an  evliya'^  (saint)  and 
he  was  buried  with  the  honour  due  to  one  who  had 
held  communion  with  Allah." 

Patron  saints  also  hold  no  unimportant  place  in 
this  mystical  hierarchy.  They  include,  besides 
defunct  Dervishes  of  peculiar  holiness,  all  the  more 
famous  bibhcal  characters  ;  and  their  protection  is 
perhaps  specially  claimed  by  the  numerous  eswa/s 
or  trade  guilds.  Thus  the  Bakers,  who,  according 
to  Evliya  Effendi,  have  precedence  over  all  other 
guilds  of  handicraftsmen,  and  enjoy  the  honourable 
title  of  "  Columns  of  Faith,"  have  for  their  patron 
Adeim,  who,  say  the  Moslems,  was  forbidden  to  eat 
of  the  corn-tree  in  Paradise,  but  having  transgressed 
the  divine  command,  he  was  exiled  to  earth,  where 
Gabriel  brought  again  to  him  the  corn,  which  he 
boiled  and  converted  into  soup.  Hence  the  form 
of  invitation  usual  now  in  the  East :  "  Come,  let 
us  eat  the  Father's  soup  (ash  haha)  together  !  " 
Gabriel  then  taught  Adam  to  grind  the  corn  and 
make  it  into  bread. 

The  mythical  Jemshid,*  who  is  reputed  to  have 
lived  a  thousand  years  and  to  have  invented  three 
hundred  arts,  protects,  among  others,  the  Firework- 
makers.     The  patron  saint  of  the  Coffee-makers  is 

1  This  plural  form  of  the  Arabic  word  is  popularly  used 
as  a  singular  noun, 

2  Jemshid  was  the  fourth  king  of  the  first  Persian  dynasty 
mentioned  in  the  Shah  Nameh,  where  he  is  described  as 
having  been  eminent  in  learning  and  wisdom.     When  he 


THE  SPIRITUAL  HIERARCHY  43 

Ebul  Hassan  Schaseli,  who  discovered  the  virtues 
of  the  Mocha  berry  ;  that  of  the  Gardeners  is  Baba 
Reten,  a  recluse  of  Mount  Olympus,  learned  in 
botany  ;  and  that  of  the  Dentists,  or  rather  barber 
tooth-drawers,  Sheikh  Uwais,  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  chapter. 


had  reached  the  summit  of  his  power  and  glory,  he  was 
able  to  compel  the  very  demons  to  labour  for  him  in 
building  a  glorious  palace. 

He  taught  the  unholy  demon  train  to  knead 
Water  and  clay,  with  which,  formed  into  bricks, 
The  walls  were  built,  and  then  high  turrets,  towers, 
And  balconies,  and  roofs  to  keep  out  rain 
And  cold  and  sunshine.     Every  art  was  known 
To  Jemshid,  without  rival  in  the  world. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE   METAPHORS   OF  THE   POETS 

"  The  Mystic  Word,  clad  in  poetic  dress, 
The  shadow  is  of  that  proclaimed  by  Prophet  tongue  ; 
Majestic  strideth  Prophecy  in  foremost  rank, 
While  follows  humbly  in  its  footsteps  Poesy.  " 

One  of  the  chief  peculiarities  of  Persian  and  Ottoman 
poetical  writings  is  that  they  almost  always  contain, 
concealed  beneath  their  literal  meaning,  an  esoteric 
and  spiritual  signification.  A  certain  number  of 
famous  poems,  such  as,  for  instance,  the  Turkish 
''Diwdn  of  Ashik  Pasha,"  and  the  Persian  "  Mesnevi 
of  Jelalii'-d-Din,  may,  indeed,  be  read  for  the  most 
part  for  what  they  appear  on  the  surface  to  be — 
religious  or  moral  works.  But  nearly  all  the  long 
Persian  romances  in  verse  called  Mesnevi,  the 
charming  love-stories  of  Leyla  and  Mejnoun,  of 
Khusruf  and  Shir  in,  of  Yusuf  and  Zulaikha, 
the  Mantic  Uttair,  and  many  others,  are  allegorical 
representations  of  the  yearning  of  the  soul  of  man 
for  union  with  the  Deity,  or  its  love  of  and  quest  for 
the  highest  type  of  spiritual  beauty  and  goodness — 
an  object  attained  only  when  the  heart  has  been 
purified  by  the  severest  and  most  painful  trials. 

The  Ghazels,  or  odes,  present  the  same  character- 
istic as  the  longer  poems.  Though  on  the  surface 
either  mere  bacchanalian  verses  or  voluptuous  love 
songs,  they  are,  to  those  who  possess  the  key  to 
their  symbohc  imagery,  the  fervent  outpourings  of 
hearts  ecstasied,  or,  as  they  express  it,  intoxicated 

44 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS  45 

with  spiritual  love.  For  every  word  in  these  effusions 
has  its  mystical  signification.  It  has  indeed  been 
asserted  that  "  every  word  of  Sadi  possesses  seventy- 
two  different  meanings  *'  ;  and  the  symbolism  of 
his  verse  he  himself  thus  explains  : — 

Think  not,  O  Khjzr,  thou  favoured  of  Fortune, 

When  I  of  "  Wine  "  sing,  the  juice  of  the  grape  I  am 

praising. 
"  Wine  "  is  to  me  that  which  *bove  self  exalteth ; 
None  other  ever  doth  gladden  my  banquet. 
Know  that  my  "Cupbeajrer  "  is  but  of  vow  the  fulfilment ; 
"  Draught  "  from  the  "  Tavern  "  ecstatic  oblivion. 
Heaven  is  my  witness  that  long   as  on  earth  I  have 

sojourned. 
Ne'er  hath  the  tip  of  my  lips  with  the  red  wine  been 

stainM. 

The  "  Fair  One  "  for  whom  in  these  ghazels  Man, 
the  "  Lover/*  sighs,  is  the  Deity  ;  as  is  also  the 
"  Loved  One  '*  whom  he  entreats  to  throw  off  the 
veil  that  conceals  His  perfect  beauty  from  view. 
The  "  Ruby  Lip  "  signifies  the  unspoken,  but  heard 
and  understood,  words  of  God  ;  "  nestling  in  the 
Fair  One's  tresses  "  denotes  comprehension  of  the 
hidden  attributes  of  the  Divinity  ;  the  "  Embrace  " 
is  the  revelation  to  man  of  the  divine  mysteries  ; 
"  Separation  "  or  "  Absence  "  from  the  "  Loved 
One  "  is  the  non-attainment  of  oneness  with  the 
Deity.  "  Wine  "  is  the  Divine  Love  ;  the  "  Cup- 
bearer "  the  spiritual  instructor,  the  "  giver  of  the 
goblet  of  celestial  aspiration  "  ;  the  "  Libertine  " 
the  Saint  who  has  become  careless  of  human  conven- 
tionalities ;  the  "  Tavern,"  a  place  where  one  mor- 
tifies sensuality,  and  relinquishes  his    name    and 


46  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

worldly  fame.  The  "  Zephyr  "  is  the  breathmg  of 
the  Divine  Spirit  ;  the  "  Taper,"  the  heavenly  light 
kindling  the  "  Torch,"  which  is  the  heart  of  the 
Lover,  Man  ;  and  so  on  through  every  detail.  These 
ghazels  breathe,  indeed,  in  every  line  a  spirit  of 
ravishment  and  ecstasy,  '*  picturing  the  whole 
creation  as  filled  with  the  Divine  Love  by  which 
even  the  most  humble  plant  is  excited  to  seek  the 
subhme  object  of  its  desires."^ 

One  of  the  earhest  and  most  famous  of  the  Dervish 
poets  was  Mohammed  ben  Ibrahim  of  Nischapiir, 
on  whom  was  conferred  the  honorific  title  of  Farid- 
'd-Din  ("  Pearl  of  the  Faith  "),  and  who  was  also 
known  by  the  soubriquet  of  "  Attar  "  from  his  trade 
as  a  perfumer.  He  was  born  in  1119,  and  at  the 
advanced  age  of  a  hundred  and  ten  was  massacred 
by  the  Mongols  under  Yenghiz  Khan.  One  day, 
when  he  was  in  his  shop,  a  passing  Dervish  stopped 
before  him,  cast  a  glance  over  his  wares,  and  heaved 
a  deep  sigh.  Attar,  surprised,  begged  him  to  go  on 
his  way.  "  Thou  art  right,"  rephed  the  stranger, 
"  the  road  to  eternity  is  easy  for  me  ;  I  have  no 
encumbrances,  for  all  I  possess  in  the  world  is  my 
mantle.  Unfortunately  it  is  not  so  with  thee,  who 
possessest  so  much  valuable  merchandise.  But  take 
heed  that  thou  also  prepare  thyself  for  that  journey.'" 
This  advice,  according  to  the  biographers,  made  a 
great  impression  on  Attar's  mind,  and  finally  caused 
him  to  give  up  his  business  and  the  world  in  order 
to  consecrate  himself  exclusively  to  the  service  of 
1  Ubicini,  Letters,  p.  101. 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS     47 

God.     For  several  years  he  abandoned  himself  to 
physical  mortifications  and  rehgious  practices,  and 
subsequently  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mekka.     He 
also  frequented  the  society  of  men  famed  for  eminent 
piety,  and  by  this  means  collected  the  vast  store  of 
anecdotes  with  which  he  embelHshed  and  illustrated 
his    writings,    these    anecdotes    being    considered 
valuable  fragments  of  Moslem  biography.     In  his 
old  age  Attar  received  at  Nischapiir  the  visit  of 
Jelalii-'d-Din,  to  whom  he  presented  a  copy  of  his 
work,  the  "  Asrdr  Ndmd,'^  or  "  Book  of  Secrets,"  the 
perusal  of  which  was  said  to  have  greatly  influenced 
the  younger  poet.     The   most   famous   of  Attar's 
works  is,  however,  the  '^Mantic  Uttair,''  or  "Lan- 
guage of  the  Birds,"  a  long  poem  which  represents  in 
allegorical  form  the  Soul's  Quest  for  the  Divine  Love. 
The  Birds  had  hitherto  lived  as  a  Republic,  but  they 
felt  the  necessity  of  having  a  King,  and  took  counsel 
of  the  Hoopoe  who,  as  she  had,  according  to  Moslem 
legend,   accompanied  Solomon  on  his  journey  to 
Sheba,  was  supposed  to  be  the  best  judge  of  the 
quahties  requisite  in  a  King.     The  Hoopoe  proposed 
to  them  as  sovereign  the  Slmorg,  a  wonderful  bird 
whose    abode    was    in    the    Caucasus,    and    whose 
excellent  qualities  she  set  forth.     The  birds  accept 
Simorg  as  their  King  ;   but  many  are  dismayed  by 
the  dangers  of  the  way  and  the  length  of  the  journey 
to  his  abode.     A  company  of  Birds  finally  set  out, 
but   the   greater    number   perish   by   the   way   of 
hunger,  thirst,  or  fatigue.     At  length,  after  passing 
through  many  trials  and  dangers,  thirty  survivors 


48  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

only  reach  the  goal  of  their  journey,  when  they  find 

in  themselves  the  object  of  their  quest — the  Sintorg, 

a  word  which,  in  Persian,  signifies  '*  thirty  birds." 

This  consummation  is  thus  described  by  the  poet. 

When    the   birds   have    been   introduced    by    the 

Chamberlain  into  the  presence  of  the  Simorg  : — 

They  on  the  Throne  of  Nearness  take  their  seat 

In  glory  and  in  majesty's  high  place, 

The  Sun  of  Nearness  on  them  shed  His  rays, 

And,  mirrored  in  each  face,  these  Birds  of  Earth 

Saw  the  Simorg,  the  Bird  of  Heaven  ; 

And  when  on  Him  they  gazed,  but  Thirty  Birds  beheld, 

Strange  wonderment  then  fell  upon  their  minds. 

Were  they  still  Thirty  Birds  ?   Or  were  they  now  Simorg  ? 

They  asked  themselves,  and  yet  it  seemed 

That  they  Simorg  were  now,  and  He  the  Thirty  Birds. 

Then  mutely  craved  the  meaning  to  be  shown 
Of  this  Plurality  and  Unity  combined  ; 
And,  without  words,  this  did  Simorg  reply  : 
''The  Sun  that  from  my  majesty  rays  forth 
A  mirror  is.     Whoso  approacheth  near, 
Therein  reflected  may  himself  behold, 
His  body  and  his  soul,  himself  complete. 
Since  you  as  Thirty  Birds  are  hither  come, 
You  in  this  mirror  but  those  Birds  behold. 
Thus  in  my  radiance  be  still  lost,  absorbed, 
That  you  yourselves  may  ever  find  in  me." 
The  Birds  were  in  Simorg  thenceforward  lost. 
As  are  the  sunrays  lost  within  the  sun. 

The  following  passage  from  the  same  work  pre- 
sents another  aspect  of  the  Siifi  doctrines,  the 
pantheistic  conception  of  Creation.  It  is  addressed 
by   the   spiritually  mmded   Hoopoe  to   the   other 

Birds  : — 

Come  !    of  this  King  admire  the  handiwork. 
Though  less  than  naught  it  in  His  eyes  appears. 


/ 


THE   ADRIANOPLE    GATE,    STAMBOUL,   LEADING   TO   THE 

DERVISH    CEMETERY 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS     49 

And,  as  His  Essence  all  the  world  pervades, 

Naught  in  Creation  is,  save  this  alone. 

Upon  the  waters  has  He  fixed  His  Throne, 

This  earth  suspended  in  the  starry  space, 

Yet  what  are  seas  and  what  is  air  ?    for  all 

Is  God,  and  but  a  talisman  are  heaven  and  earth 

To  veil  Divinity.     For  Heaven  and  earth, 

Did  He  not  permeate  them,  were  but  names. 

Know  then,  that  both  this  visible  world,   and  that 

Which  unseen  is,  alike  are  God  Himself. 

Naught  is,  save  God  ;    and  all  that  is,  is  God. 

And  yet,  alas  I   by  how  few  is  He  seen. 

Blind  are  men's  eyes,  though  all  resplendent  shines 

The  world  by  Deity's  own  light  illumed. 

O  Thou  whom  man  perceiveth  not,  although 

To  him  Thou  deignest  to  make  known  Thyself  ; 

Thou  all  Creation  art,  all  we  behold,  but  Thou. 

The  soul  within  the  body  lies  concealed, 

And  Thou  dost  hide  Thyself  within  the  soul. 

O  soul  in  soul  !     Myst'ry  in  myst'ry  hid  ! 

Before  all  wert  Thou,  and  art  more  than  all !  ^ 

Sadi  was  a  fellow-disciple  with  Bah§--'d-Din  ^ 
(father  of  the  great  poet  of  Konieh)  of  the  famous 
Sheikh  Sa'ed-*d-Din  of  Kashgar,^  who  instructed 
him  in  theology  and  in  the  principles  of  Siifi  phil- 
osophy ;  and  in  the  company  of  this  teacher  he 
made  the  first  of  his  fourteen  pilgrimages  to  Mekka. 
Sadi  was  a  great  traveller.  Besides  his  Eastern 
journeys  in  Armenia,  Arabia,  and  India,  he  also 
visited  Europe,  Egypt,  and  Barbary.  On  one 
occasion  he  was  captured  by  the  Crusaders  and 
made  to  work  in  the  ditch  at  Tripoli.  From  this 
slavery  he  was  rescued  by  a  merchant  of  Aleppo, 

^  See  Garcin  de  Tassy,  Mantic  Uttair. 
2  Mentioned  on  p.   148 
8  Ibid. 


50  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

who   recognised   the   poet,   paid   his   ransom,   and 

subsequently  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage. 

The  last  thirty  years  of  Sadi's  long  and  adventurous 

life — he  lived  to  the  great  age  of  a  hundred  and 

sixteen — were   spent    at   Shiraz,    a   town   situated 

among  charming  natural  scenery,  and  blessed  with 

a  deHcious  chmate.     Here  he  wrote  the  two  works 

on    which    his    fame    chiefly  rests,   the   Gulistdn, 

or  "  Rosary,'*  and  the  Bostdn,  or  "  Garden."  The 

first  consists  of  prose  anecdotes  interspersed  with 

couplets,  verses,  and  moral  apologues  ;  while  the 

second  is  entirely  a  poetical  work.     The  writings  of 

Sadi  are  replete  with  wise  proverbial  sayings,  pious 

reflections,  and  moral  precepts,  but  Siifi  mysticism 

also  finds  a  large  place  in  them.     In  Oriental  fashion 

he  thus  addresses  himself : — 

Sadi,  move  thou  to  Resignation's  shrine. 

O  man  of  God,  the  path  of  God  be  thine  ! 

Hapless  is  he  who  from  this  Haven  turns. 

All  doors  shall  spurn  him  who  this  Portal  spurns. 

The  tolerance  and  goodwill  to  all  mankind,  irre- 
spective of  race  or  creed,  so  often  met  with  among 
the  more  enlightened  Siifis,  formed  an  admirable 
part  of  Sadi's  character,  and  found  expression  as 

follows  : — 

All  Adam's  race  are  members  of  one  frame, 
Since  all,  at  first,  from  the  same  essence  came. 
When,  by  hard  fortune  is  one  limb  opprest, 
The  other  members  lose  their  wonted  rest, 
If  thou  feel  not  for  others'  misery, 
A  son  of  Adam  is  no  name  for  thee. 

The    Mesnevi    of    Jelalu-'d-Din    surpasses,    in 

Oriental  estimation,  all  other  works  of  the  kind  by 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS     51 

Moslem  writers.  The  word  Mesnevi  signifies  at  once 
the  verse-form — a  rhymed  distich  of  not  less  than 
twelve  couplets — in  which  romance  or  epic  poetry- 
is  written,  and  the  poem  itself  ;  and  the  work  of 
the  poet  of  Konieh  is  by  common  consent  termed 
simply  The  Mesnevi,  or  "  Poem  of  Poems.'*  Like 
all  the  early  Dervish  hterature,  it  is  in  Persian,  and 
consists  of  a  number  of  pieces  written  in  the  form  of 
apologues,  with  digressions  on  Sufi  doctrines.  The 
work  is  divided  into  six  Books  or  Parts,  and  contains 
twenty-six  thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty  couplets.  ^ 
Like  his  forerunner,  Sadi,  the  great  founder  of  the 
Mevlevi  Order  preaches  tolerance  and  large-minded- 
ness,  as  in  the  following  charming  parable  which  I 
give  in  Mr.  Whinfield's  prose  translation  : — 

"  Moses  once  heard  a  shepherd  praying  as  follows  : 
'  O  God,  show  me  where  Thou  art  that  I  may  become 
Thy  servant.  I  will  clean  Thy  shoes,  and  comb  Thy 
hair,  and  sew  Thy  clothes,  and  fetch  Thee  milk.* 
When  Moses  heard  him  praying  in  this  senseless 
manner,  he  rebuked  him.  saying,   '  O  fooHsh  one, 

^  Portions  only  of  the  Mesnevi  have,  so  far  as  my%now- 
ledge  goes,  as  yet  been  translated  into  any  European 
language.  The  late  Sir  James  Redhouse  published  in 
Trubner's  Oriental  Series  a  volume  containing  translations 
of  a  number  of  pieces  from  the  First  Book  of  that  work. 
The  renderings  of  the  late  Orientalist  are,  however,  often 
grotesque  in  their  exceeding  baldness  ;  while  comparison 
with  Mr.  Whinfield's  literal  prose  translations  of  the  same 
passages  makes  it  evident  that,  in  order  to  meet  the  exi- 
gencies of  rhyme  and  metre,  many  words  and  phrases  have 
been  added  which  completely  obscure  the  sense  of  the 
original  lines. 


52  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

though  your  father  was  a  Moslem,  you  have  become 
an  infidel !  God  is  a  spirit,  and  needs  not  such  gross 
ministrations  as  in  your  ignorance  you  suppose.' 
The  shepherd  was  abashed  at  the  Prophet's  rebuke  ; 
he  tore  his  clothes  and  fled  away  into  the  desert. 
Then  a  voice  from  heaven  was  heard,  saying,  *  O 
Moses,  wherefore  hast  thou  driven  away  My  servant  ? 
Thine  office  it  is  to  reconcile  my  people  with  Me,  not 
to  drive  them  away  from  Me.  I  have  given  to 
men  different  usages  and  forms  of  praising  and  of 
adoring  Me.  I  have  no  need  of  their  praises,  being 
exalted  high  above  all  such  needs.  I  regard  not 
the  words  which  are  spoken,  but  the  heart  that 
offers  them.'  " 

The  following  poem,  which  forms  a  kind  of  Pro- 
logue to  the  Mesneviy  was  translated  a  century 
ago  by  the  celebrated  Orientahst,  Sir  WiUiam 
Jones  :— ^ 

SONG   OF  THE   REED-FLUTE  2 

Hear  how  yon  reed,  in  sadly  pleasing  tales, 
Departed  bliss  and  present  woe  bewails  : 
"With  me,  from  native  banks  untimely  torn, 
Love-warbling  youths  and  soft-eyed  virgins  mourn. 

0  !   let  the  heart  by  fatal  absence  rent, 

Feel  what  I  sing,  and  bleed  when  I  lament : 
Who  roams  in  exile  from  his  parent  bower. 
Pants  to  return,  and  chides  each  lingering  hour. 
My  notes  in  circles  of  the  grave  and  gay, 
Have  hailed  the  rising,   cheered  the  closing  day. 
Each  in  my  fond  affections  claimed  a  part, 
But  none  discerned  the  secret  of  my  heart. 

1  The  Works,  Vol.  I. 

a  See  p.  110.     The  Mystic  Reed-flute. 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS  53 

What  though  my  strains  and  sorrows  slow  combined, 
Yet  ears  are  dull,  and  carnal  eyes  are  blind. 
Free  through  each  mortal  form  the  spirits  roll, 
But  sighs  avail  not.     Can  we  see  the  soul  ?  " 

Such  notes  breathed  gently  from  yon  vocal  frame. 

Breathed,  said  I  ?    No  !  'Twas  all  enlivening  flame. 

'Tis  love  that  fills  the  reed  with  warmth  divine  ; 

'Tis  love  that  sparkles  in  the  rosy  wine. 

The  plaintive  wand'rer  from  my  peerless  maid, 

The  reed  has  fired,  and  all  my  soul  betrayed. 

He  gives  the  bane  and  he  with  balsam  cures  ; 

Afflicts,  yet  soothes,  impassions,  yet  allures. 

Hail,  heavenly  Love  !    true  source  of  endless  gains  ! 

Thy  balm  restores  me,  and  thy  skill  sustains. 

O  more  than  Galen  learned,  than  Plato  wise, 

My  guide,  my  law,  my  joy  supreme,  arise  ! 

Love  warms  this  frigid  clay  with  mystic  fire, 

And  dancing  mountains  leap  with  young  desire. 

Blest  is  the  soul  that  swims  in  seas  of  love, 

And  long  the  life  sustained  by  food  above. 

With  forms  imperfect  can  perfection  dwell  ? 

Here  pause,  my  song  ;    and  thou,  vain  world,  farewell  ! 

The  following  charming  little  parable,  so 
essentially  Sufi  in  spirit,  is  already  a  favourite 
with  Europeans.     It  is  from  "  The  Lion's  Hunt  "  : — 

A  Dervish  once  to  his  Friend's  door  drew  nigh,  and  knocked. 
"Who  art  thou.   Faithful  One?"  was  asked,   ere  'twas 

unlocked. 
"  'Tis  I,"  the  Dervish  cried.     "  Then  in  thou  mayst  not 

come  ; 
For  at  my  well-dressed  feast  there  is  for  raw  no  room," 
Replied  the  Friend.     "  But  separation's  fiery  smart 
Can  purify  the  crude,  and  cleanse  from  guile  his  heart. 
Since  from  the  bonds  of  self  thou  art  not  yet  set  free, 
By  fiery  flame  alone  canst  thou  refined  be." 
The  Dervish  went  away.     For  one  whole  weary  year 
Did  wander,  grief -consumed,  his  Friend  no  longer  near. 

5— U119) 


54  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

Then,  cleansed  at  length  by  fire  till  self  became  as  naught, 
He  turned  him  back  again  ;  his  Friend's  abode  he  sought, 
And  at  His  door  he  knocked,  with  trembling  hand  and 

meek, 
Fearing  some  careless  word  his  foolish  lips  might  speak. 
Again  then  asked  the  Friend  :    "  Who  at  my  door  knocks 

low  ?  " 
He  answered  only,  "  O  Belov'd,  Belov'd,  'tis  thou  !  " 
"  Since  'tis  Myself  that  knocks,  the  door  stands  open  wide — 
But  could  two  I's  beneath  one  roof  in  peace  abide  ?  "  ^ 

The  following  passage,  also  from  the  Mesnevi, 
refers  to  the  Dervish  Pit,  Bayazid  Bestemi,  men- 
tioned in  the  first  chapter,  and  interestingly  illus- 
trates the  Siifi  doctrine  of  union  with  the  Deity. 
When  on  his  pilgrimage  to  Mekka,  Bayazid  visited 
all  the  "  Pillars  of  Insight  "  who  had  their  abodes 
in  the  various  towns  through  which  he  had  to  pass. 
One  day  he  had  the  happiness  to  discover  the 
"  Axis,"  2  or  greatest  saint  of  the  time,  in  the 
person  of  a  venerable  Dervish  with  whom  he  held 
the  following  conversation  : — 

"  Say  now,  O  Bayazid,  to  what  town  art  thou  bound, 

Where  will  thy  weary  caravan  its  rest  have  found  ?  " 

"  At  dawn  I  to  the  holy  Ka'aba  ^  take  my  way." 

"  But  how  wilt  thou  the  cost  of  that  long  journey  pay  ?  " 

"  Two  hundred  silver  dirhems  do  I  bear  with  me, 

Sewn  in  the  corner  of  my  cloak  for  safety,  see  ! 

"  Walk  sev'n  times  round  me,  Bayazid,"  the  Sage  then  said. 

"  Greater  thy  gain  than  hadst  the  Ka'aba's  circuit  made  ! 

As  for  thy  dirhems,  liberal  one,  give  them  to  me. 

For  now  thy  journey's  o'er,  thou  thy  deshe  dost  see. 

Thy  Pilgrimage  is  made,  Eternal  Life  hast  gained, 

Heav'n's  purity  in  one  brief  moment  hast  attained. 

1  Versified  from  Mr.  Whinfield's  prose  translation. 

2  See   p.    32. 

3  The  Sanctuary  at  Mekka. 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS     55 

That  which  thy  soul  in  me  doth  see  is  truly  God, 

For  He  hath  chosen  me  to  make  me  His  abode. 

Unto  the  Ka'aba  He  His  Grace  and  Favour  shows, 

But  to  my  body  He  His  Secret  doth  disclose. 

Hath  He,  since  He  that  house  built,  e'en  to  enter  deigned  ? 

But,  save  th'  Eternal  One,  none  entrance  here  hath  gained. 

When  Thou  hast  me  beheld,  then  Allah  hast  thou  seen. 

And  round  about  the  holy  Ka'aba  thou  hast  been. 

Thou  servest  me,  and  Allah  worshipped  is,  and  praised  ; 

For  think  not  He  so  high  above  all  men  is  raised. 

Thy  mind's  eye  open  wide,  and  fix  thou  it  on  me 

That,  in  a  mortal,  Thou  the  Light  of  God  mayst  see. 

Once  only  the  Belov'd  '  My  House  '  the  Ka'aba  named, 

But  me  He  seventy  times  has  as  '  His  Servant '  ^  claimed. 

O  happy  Bayazid,  thou  hast  the  Ka'aba  found. 

And  now  art  with  a  thousand  precious  blessings  crowned  !  " 

Jelalu-'d-Din  also  left  behind  him  a  large  collec- 
tion of  ghazels,  or  odes.  This  is  a  verse-form  which 
may  contain  from  three  to  twenty-five  distichs,  the 
two  first  lines  rhyming  with  the  second  line  of  each 
succeeding  couplet.  This  pecuharity  of  rhyme  has, 
however,  been  disregarded  in  the  following  ghazelsy 
translated  by  Professor  Falconer,  but  may  be 
remarked  in  Mr.  Gibb's  renderings  of  ghazels  by 
Ottoman  poets  : — 

All  earthly  forms,  where  beauty  dwells  enshrined, 
That  beauty  borrow  from  the  Infinite  mind, 
Why  grieve  we  when  the  faint  icflections  fade  ? — 
Their  source  and  prototype  are  undecayed. 

The  form  whose  beauty  woos  the  raptured  eye. 
The  strain  that  steeps  the  soul  in  ecstasy. 
When  that  hath  vanished,  and  this  ceased  to  flow. 
Why  weep  and  call  it  death,  which  seems  but  so  ? 

1  Alluding  to  a  passage  in  the  Hadis  or  Traditions, 
which  says,  "  Heaven  and  earth  cannot  contain  me,  but  the 
heart  of  my  faithful  Servant  containeth  me  !  " 


56  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

Long  as  the  gushing  fount  its  circle  fills, 

Can  it  forget  to  feed  its  thousand  rills  ? 

Thy  soul  a  fount  is — thoughts,   shapes,   sounds  of  earth 

Flow  thence,  as  rivers  from  their  source  have  birth. 

See,  to  what  precious  metal  is  refined 

Ignoble  dust,  when  linked  to  godlike  mind  ; 

Nor  doubt  when  thou  hast  filled  thy  part  as  man, 

Angel  awaits  thee  in  the  mighty  plan. 

With  starry  heaven  thy  home — a  bright  abode, 

Far  from  the  spot  thy  mortal  footsteps  trode. 

Nor  yet  at  Angel  shall  thy  being's  motion 

Be  stayed,  but  onward  press  to  Being's  ocean. 

There  shall  thy  atom -drop  become  a  sea, 

Vast  as  a  hundred  deeps,  wide,  weltering,  boundless,  free, 

Then  boldly,  son,  proclaim  in  faith  and  truth. 

This  creed  :   Though  forms  decay,  souls  own  a  deathless  youth. 

Passing  on  to  the  fifteenth  century,  we  come  to 
J  ami,  who  was  born  in  the  year  1414  at  the  town 
of  Jam  in  Khorassan,  from  which  he  took  his  pen- 
name.  To  his  real  name  of  Abdul-rahman  was 
added  that  of  Nur-'d-DIn  ("  Light  of  the  Faith  "), 
and  in  later  years  his  fame  for  learning  and  sanctity 
gained  also  for  him  that  of  Mevlana  ("  Om"  Lord  " 
or  "  Master  ").  J  ami  left  behind  him  at  least  fifty 
volumes  of  poetry,  grammar,  and  theology,  which 
are  still  read  and  admired  in  the  Eastern  world. 
Seven  of  his  best  mystical  poems  are  called  The 
Seven  Thrones,  but  the  most  famous  of  all  is  his 
Yusuf  and  Zulaikha,  considered  by  European 
authorities  to  be  one  of  the  finest  compositions  in 
the  Persian  language.^  Of  the  follo\^dng  passages 
the  first  and  second  are  taken  from  the  introductory, 

1  See  Preface  to  Rozenzweig's  translation  of  Yusuf  and 
Zulaikha,  also  his  Analysis  and  Specimens  of  the  Joseph  and 
Zulaikha,   1872.     Griffith,    Yusuf  and  Zulaikha,   1882. 


THE   METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS     57 

and  the  third  from  one  of  the  concluding  cantos  of 
this  poem.  In  this  touching  story  of  the  loves  of 
Joseph  and  "  Potiphar's  Wife  "  is  symboHsed  the 
yearning  of  the  human  soul  for  the  highest  moral 
beauty  and  perfection  : — 

(I) 
In  solitude,  where  Being  signless  dwelt. 
And  all  the  Universe  still  dormant  lay 
Concealed  in  selfishness,  One  Being  was 
Exempt  from   "  I-"  or  "  Thou  "-ness,  and  apart 
From  all  duality  ;   Beauty  Supreme, 
Unmanifest,  except  unto  itself 
By  its  own  light,  yet  fraught  with  power  to  charm 
The  souls  of  all  ;    concealed  in  the  Unseen, 
An  essence  pure,  unstained  by  aught  of  ill. 
No  mirror  to  reflect  Its  loveliness, 
Nor  comb  to  touch  Its  locks  ;    the  morning  breeze 
Ne'er  stirred  Its  tresses  ;   no  collyrium 
Lent  lustre  to  Its  eyes  ;   no  rosy  cheeks 
O'ershadowed  by  dark  curls  like  hyacinth. 
Nor  peach-like  down  were  there  ;    no  dusky  mole 
Adorned  Its  face  ;    no  eye  had  yet  beheld 
Its  image.     To  Itself  it  sang  of  love 
In  wordless  measures.     By  Itself  it  cast 
The  die  of  love. 

But  Beauty  cannot  brook 
Concealment  and  the  veil,  nor  patient  rest 
Unseen  and  unadmired  :    'twill  burst  all  bonds, 
And  from  Its  prison  casement  to  the  world 
Reveal  Itself.     See  where  the  tulip  grows 
In  upland  meadows,  how  in  balmy  spring 
It  decks  itself  ;    and  how  amidst  its  thorns. 
The  wild  rose  rends  its  garment,  and  reveals 
Its  loveliness.     Thou,  too,  when  some  rare  thought 
Or  beauteous  image,  or  deep  mystery 
Flashes  across  thy  soul,  canst  not  endure 
To  let  it  pass,  but  hold'st  it,  that  perchance 
In  speech  or  writing  thou  may'st  send  it  forth 
To  charm  the  world. 


58  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

Wherever  Beauty  dwells 
Such  is  its  nature,  and  its  heritage 
From  Everlasting  Beauty,  which  emerged 
From  realms  of  purity  to  shine  upon 
The  worlds,  and  all  the  souls  that  dwell  therein. 
One  gleam  fell  from  It  on  the  Universe 
And  on  the  angels,  and  this  single  ray 
Dazzled  the  angels  till  their  senses  whirled 
Like  the  revolving  sky.     In  divers  forms 
Each  mirror  showed  It  forth,  and  everywhere 
Its  praise  was  chanted  in  new  harmonies. 
*  *  *  *  * 

Each  speck  of  matter  did  He  constitute 

A  mirror,  causing  each  one  to  reflect 

The  beauty  of  His  visage.     From  the  rose 

Flashed  forth  His  beauty,  and  the  nightingale, 

Beholding  it,  loved  madly.     From  that  Light 

The  candle  drew  the  lustre  which  beguiles 

The  moth  to  immolation.     On  the  sun 

His  Beauty  shone,  and  straightway  from  the  wave 

The  lotus  reared  its  head.     Each  shining  lock 

Of  Leyia's  hair  attracted  Mejuun's  heart 

Because  some  ray  divine  reflected  shone 

In  her  fair  face.     'Twas  He  to  Shirin's  Ups 

Who  lent  that  sweetness  which  had  power  to  steal 

The  heart  from  Par  viz,  and  from  Ferhad  life. 

His  Beauty  everywhere  doth  show  itself, 
And  through  the  forms  of  earthly  beauties  shines 
Obscured,  as  through  a  veil.     He  did  reveal 
His  face  through  Joseph's  coat,  and  so  destroyed 
Zuleykha's  peace.     Where'er  thou  seest  a  veil, 
Beneath  that  veil  He  hides.     Whatever  heart 
Doth  yield  to  love,  He  charms  it.     In  His  love 
The  heart  hath  life.     Longing  for  Him,  the  soul 
Hath  victory.     That  heart  which  feigns  to  love 
The  fair  ones  of  this  world,  loves  Him  alone. 
Beware  !   say  not  "  He  is  All-Beautiful, 
And  we  His  lovers."     Thou  art  but  the  glass, 
And  He  the  Face^  confronting  it,  which  casts 

^  "  All    things    shall    perish  save  His  Face."     Koran 
xxviii.  88. 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS     59 

Its  image  on  the  mirror.     He  alone 

Is  manifest,  and  thou  in  truth  art  hid. 

Pure  Love,  hke  Beauty,  coming  but  from  Him 

Reveals  itself  in  Thee.     If  steadfastly 

Thou  canst  regard,  thou  wilt  at  length  perceive 

He  is  the  mirror  also — He  alike 

The  Treasure  and  the  Casket.     "  I  "  and  "  Thou  " 

Have  here  no  place,  and  are  but  phantasies 

Vain  and  unreal.     Silence  !   for  this  tale 

Is  endless,  and  no  eloquence  hath  power 

To  speak  of  Him.     'Tis  best  for  us  to  love 

And  suffer  silently,  being  as  naught.  ^ 

(II) 

No  heart  is  that  which  Love  ne'er  wounded  ;  they 
Who  know  not  lover's  pangs  are  soulless  clay. 
Turn  from  the  world,  O  turn  thy  wandering  feet ; 
Come  to  the  World  of  Love  and  find  it  sweet ! 
Heaven's  giddy  round  from  craze  of  love  was  caught, 
From  Love's  disputes  the  world  with  strife  is  fraught. 
Love's  slave  be  thou  if  thou  would  fain  be  free  : 
Welcome  love's  pangs,  and  happy  shalt  thou  be. 

Love's  sweet,  soft  memories  youth  itself  restore  ; 
The  tale  of  love  gives  fame  for  evermore. 
If  Majuun  ne'er  the  cup  of  love  had  drained, 
High  fame  in  heaven  and  earth  he  ne'er  had  gained. 
A  thousand  sages,  deep  in  wisdom's  lore, 
Untaught  of  Love,  died,  and  are  known  no  more  : 
Without  a  name  or  trace  in  death  they  sank, 
And  in  the  book  of  time  their  name  is  blank.  ^ 

The  following  dialogue  occurs  between  Yusuf  and 
Zulaikha  on  meeting  after  a  long  separation,  during 
which  her  husband,  the  Wazir  of  Egypt,  has 
died,  and  she  has  become  poor  and  bhnd.     This 

1  Translated  by  Mr.  R.  T.  H.  Browne  in  A  Year  Among 
the  Persians,  pp.   125-7. 

2  Griffith,  Yusuf  and  Zulaikha,  p.  23. 


60  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

*'  separation  "  of  course  symbolises  the  estrange- 
ment of  the  human  heart  from  the  Divine 
Love  : — 

•'  Where  are  thy  youth,  and  thy  beauty,  and  pride  ?  " 

"  Gone,  since  I  parted  from  thee,"  she  repUed. 

"  Where  is  the  Ught  of  thine  eyes  ?  "  said  he. 

"  Drowned  in  blood-tears  for  the  loss  of  thee." 

"Why  is  that  cypress-tree^  bowed  and  bent  ?  " 

"  By  absence  from  thee  and  my  long  lament." 

"  Where  are  thy  pearls  and  thy  silver  and  gold  ? 

And  the  diadem  bright  on  thy  head  of  old  ?  " 

*'  They  who  spoke  of  my  loved  one,"  she  answered,  "  shed, 

In  the  praise  of  his  beauty,  rare  pearls  on  my  head. 

In  return  for  those  jewels,  a  recompense  meet, 

I  scattered  my  jewels  and  gold  at  their  feet. 

My  crown  of  pure  gold  on  their  foreheads  I  set. 

And  the  dust  that  they  trod  made  my  coronet. 

I  gave  till  the  stream  of  my  treasure  ran  dry, 

My  heart  is  Love's  storehouse,  and  I  am  I."  ^ 

Not  in  the  Persian  language  alone,  however,  has 
poetical  utterance  been  given  to  the  mystical 
doctrines  of  the  Dervishes.  From  the  first  half  of 
the  fourteenth  century  onward  this  language  began 
to  be  abandoned  for  hterary  purposes  by  Ottomans 
in  favour  of  their  native  Turkish.  Though  both 
the  prose  and  verse  productions  in  that  language, 
previous  to  the  end  of  the  following  century,  are 
adjudged  by  critics  to  be  for  the  most  part  somewhat 
rude  and  uncouth,  one  of  the  earhest  of  these 
Turkish  writers  was  of  such  eminence  that  he  is  to 
this  day  styled  the  "  Father  of  Ottoman  Literature." 

1  The  human   form   is   often  likened  to   a  cypress   by 
Oriental  poets,  and  also  by  the  Greek  popular  muse. 

2  Griffith,  Yusuf  and  Zulaikha,  pp.  293-4. 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS  61 

Oriental  writers  have  always  affected  anonymity, 
and  this  author  wrote  under  the  takhullus,  or  pen- 
name  of  A'ashik  ("  The  Loving  ")  to  which  name, 
according  to  the  custom  of  those  times,  was  added 
the  title  of  "  Pasha  "  to  denote  his  high  rank  among 
men  of  letters.  Among  A'ashik's  numerous  pro- 
ductions is  an  '*  Ode  to  Culture  "  ;  but  he  was 
chiefly  eminent  as  a  mystic,  having  been  a  member 
of  the  Mevlevi  Order,  and  his  principal  work  is  a 
long  mystical  poem  known  as  the  ''A'ashik  Pasha 
Diwdniy  It  consists  of  rhymed  couplets,  the 
following  translated  hues  from  which  may  give 
some  idea  of  the  character  and  sentiment  of  the 
Turkish  poetry  of  that  period  : — 

All  the  Universe,  one  mighty  sign,  is  shown  ; 
God  hath  myriads  of  creative  acts  unknown  : 
None  hath  seen  them,  of  the  races  djin  ^  and  men, 
None  hath  news  brought  from  that  realm  far  off  from  ken. 
Never  shall  thy  mind  in  reason  reach  that  strand, 
Nor  can  tongue  the  King's  name  utter  of  that  land. 
Since  'tis  His  each  nothingness  with  life  to  invest, 
Trouble  is  there  ne'er  at  His  behest. 
Eighteen  thousand  worlds  from  end  to  end 
Do  not  with  Him  one  atom's  worth  transcend.  ^ 

Khiyah  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  began  hfe  as  a  Kalender  of  the  School 
of  Ah  Baba,  but  on  coming  to  the  capital  he  found 
a  patron  in  the  Grand  Vizier,  who  introduced  him 
to  the  notice  of  the  Sultan. 

1  The  race  of  beings  created,  according  to  Moslem 
tradition,  before  Adam. 

2  Translated  by  Mr.  Gibb  in  his  Ottoman  Poems. 


62  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

GHAZEL 

One  with  Realms  Eternal  this  my  soul  to  make — what 

wouldest  say  ? 
All  Creation's  empire's  fancies  to  forsake — what  wouldest 

say  ? 
Wearing  to  a  hair  my  frame  with  bitter  sighs  and  moans, 

in  love, 
Nestling  in  The   Fair  One's   tresses,   to  rest  take — what 

wouldest  say  ? 
Yonder  goldfaced  birds  within  the  quicksilver  resplendent 

deep  : 
Launching   forth   the  hawk,  my  striving,  these  to  take — 

what  wouldest  say  ? 
Yonder  Nine  Smaragdine  Bowls  of   Heaven   to   quaff   at 

one  deep  draught, 
Yet  from  all  ebriety's  fumes  free  to  break — ^what  wouldest 

say  ? 
To   an   autumn   leaf   the   Sphere   hath   turned    Khiyali's 

countenance, 
To  the   Spring  of  Beauty,   that  a  gift  to    make — what 

wouldest  say  ?  ^ 

Many  more  examples  might  be  given,  did  space 

allow,  from  the  mystic  poetry  of  Sheykhi,  LamI, 

Yahya  Bey,  and  other  later  writers.     This  chapter 

must,  however,  conclude  with  a  ghazel  of  Sidqi,  the 

famous  Ottoman  poetess  of  the  seventeenth  century, 

a    prolific   writer,    whose   works   are   full   of  Sufi 

mysticism  : — ^ 

He  who  union  with  the  Lord  gains,  more  desireth  not ; 
He  who  looks  on  charms  of  Fair  One,  other  sight  desireth 

not ; 
Pang  of  love  is  lover's  solace,  eagerly  he  seeks  therefor, 
Joys  he  in  it ;    balm  or  salve  for  yonder  blight  desireth 

not. 

^  Gibb,  Ottoman  Poems. 

^  See  my  Women  of  Turkey,  Vol.  II,  Chap.  xxiv. 
"  Poetesses  of  the  Rise,  Decline,  and  Fall  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire." 


THE  METAPHORS  OF  THE  POETS       63 

Paradise  he  longs'not  after,  nor  doth  aught  beside  regard, 
Bower,  or  garden,  mead,  or  youth  or  Hilri  bright  desireth 

not. 
From  the  hand  of  Power  Unbounded,  draweth  he  the 

wine  of  Ufe  ; 
Aye  inebriate  with  knowledge,  learning's  light  desireth 

not. 
He  who  Allah  loveth.  Lord  is  of  an  empire,  such  that  he — 
King  of  inward  mysteries — Suleyman's  might  desireth 

not : 
Thou  art  Sultan  of  my  heart,  ay,  soul  of  my  soul  e'en 

art  Thou  ; 
Thou  art  soul  enow,  and  Sidql  other  plight  desireth  not.  ^ 

^  Gibb,  Ottoman  Poems. 


CHAPTER    IV 

MONASTERIES   AND   SHRINES 

"  If  your  hearts  be  oppressed  with  sorrow,  go  seek  con- 
solation at  the  graves  of  the  holy  dead." — Traditional 
saying  of  Mohammed. 

The  monastic  establishments  of  the  Dervish  Orders, 
called  by  the  various  names  of  Tekkehs,  KhdnakdhSy 
and  Zanriyehs,  but  more  commonly  by  the  first, 
and  the  Turhehs,  or  Shrines  of  their  Saints,  are,  at 
the  present  day,  as  numerous  in  European  as  in 
Asiatic  Turkey.  In  Constantinople  and  its  environs 
many  of  the  Orders  possess  several  establishments  ; 
and  every  town  contains  the  monastery  and  shrine 
of  one  or  more  of  their  communities.  The  Tekkehs 
occupy  for  the  most  part  picturesque  and  command- 
ing situations,  sometimes  in  the  middle  of  towns  or 
cities,  but  more  frequently  in  their  suburbs.  Those 
of  the  Mevlevi  and  Rufai  are  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable.  The  central  edifice  of  the  former  is 
the  Sem  'a  Khaneh  ("  The  Hall  of  Celestial  Sounds  "), 
where  the  Brotherhood  meet  for  the  performance 
of  their  religious  exercises  and  pubhc  worship.  This 
is  usually  a  square  building  of  whitewashed  masonry, 
with  a  domed  and  red-tiled  roof.  The  interior 
arrangements  vary  somewhat,  but  are  always 
marked  by  the  utmost  simphcity.  A  circular  space 
in  the  centre  is  smoothly  planked  and  reserved  for 
the  performances  of  the  Dervishes.     It  is  divided 

64 


MONASTERIES  AND   SHRINES  65 

by  a  low  wooden  railing  from  the  rest  of  the  floor, 
which  is  covered  with  matting  and  occupied  during 
the  public  services  by  the  male  spectators.  A 
gallery,  supported  on  wooden  pillars,  runs  round 
three  sides  of  the  Tekkeh  ;  one  side  of  it  is  occupied 
by  the  Mutrib,  or  orchestra,  and  the  other  two  by 
the  women  and  children,  who  are  concealed  from 
view  by  carved  lattices.  In  some  Tekkehs,  where 
the  gallery  is  only  large  enough  to  accommodate  the 
orchestra,  a  corner  of  the  ground  floor  is  partitioned 
off  for  the  women.  The  only  attempts  at  decoration 
are  tablets  on  the  walls  inscribed  with  texts  from 
the  Koran,  and  with  the  names  of  Allah,  Mohammed, 
Ah,  and  Hasan  and  Husein,  the  grandsons  of  the 
Prophet.  As  in  the  pubhc  mosques,  the  direction 
of  Mekka  is  indicated  by  a  niche  in  the  wall,  sur- 
mounted by  the  name  of  the  Pir,  or  Founder  of  the 
Order,  and  sometimes  also  by  the  Moslem  profession 
of  faith — La  ilaha  il  Allah  ve  Mohammed  resoul 
Allah  ("  There  is  no  god  but  Allah  and  Mohammed 
is  the  Prophet  of  Allah  "),  or  the  word  Bismillah 
("In  the  Name  of  Allah  ").  In  a  corner  of  many 
Tekkehs  is  the  shrine  of  a  departed  saintly  sheikh, 
covered  with  costly  carpets  and  rich  draperies,  the 
pious  offerings  of  those  who  have  there  sought  and 
found  healing  benefit,  or  other  boon. 

The  Tekkehs  of  the  Mevlevi  Order  contain  another 
apartment  called  the  Ismi  Jeleeh  Hujreh,  where  the 
Brethren  perform  their  daily  namdz  and  the  obhga- 
tory  zikr,  or  calhng  upon  the  name  of  Allah,  which 
takes  place  at  the  hour  of  the  third  namdz.    The 


66  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

courtyard  surrounding  the  Tekkeh  gives  access  to 
the  cells  of  the  monastic  Dervishes  and  their  Sheikh. 
These  are,  in  a  fully-equipped  monastery,  eighteen 
in  number,  and  form  a  quadrangle  of  low  buildings, 
with  a  roof  sloping  to  the  front,  and  covering  a 
broad  verandah  into  which  all  the  doors  and  windows 
open.  Beyond  are  flower  and  fruit  gardens,  shaded 
by  cypress,  mulberry,  and  plane  trees,  the  haunts 
of  storks  and  pigeons  ;  and,  enclosed  by  the  arched 
gateway  and  tile-topped  walls,  are  cisterns  and 
fountains  of  sparkhng  water  furnished  with  iron 
ladles  for  the  use  of  the  thirsty.  Sometimes,  as 
within  the  precincts  of  the  Tekkeh  outside  the 
Vardar  gate  of  Salonica,  there  are  also  cool,  shady 
cloisters  and  raised  terraces  and  kiosks,  commanding 
magnificent  views  of  mountain,  plain,  and  sea. 
And  here,  when  the  evening  shadows  are  lengthening, 
the  mystics,  in  their  picturesque  and  symbolic 
attire,  may  be  seen  pacing  tranquilly  to  and  fro  ; 
or,  seated  on  the  broad  wooden  benches,  medita- 
tively passing  through  their  fingers  the  brown  beads 
of  their  long  teshehs,  or  rosaries,  on  their  faces 
that  expression  of  perfect  repose  which  indifference 
to  the  world  and  its  doings  alone  can  give. 

Though  all  the  Dervish  Orders,  in  accordance 
with  their  principle  of  Poverty,  are  considered 
mendicant,  few  are  so  in  reality,  for  most  Tekkehs 
possess  vakouf,  or  landed  property  bequeathed  to 
them  by  pious  persons.  The  revenues  from  these 
endowments  are  applied  chiefly  to  the  support  of 
the   monastic   Dervishes,   though  the  wants  of  a 


MONASTERIES  AND  SHRINES  67 

needy  lay  brother  may  occasionally  be  relieved 
from  them.  The  Tekkehs  vary  greatly  in  point  of 
wealth,  and  the  more  prosperous  are  expected  to 
assist  others  less  largely  endowed.  The  Mevlevi 
Order  is  the  most  popular,  one  might  even  say  the 
most  fashionable,  of  all,  and  has,  ever  since  its 
foundation,  included  among  its  members  men  of 
high  rank.  The  late  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz  was,  for 
instance,  a  lay  Brother,  and  occasionally,  it  is  said, 
took  part  in  the  rehgious  exercises  at  one  of  the 
Mevlevi  Tekkehs  in  Constantinople.  This  Order  is, 
consequently,  very  prosperous,  and  its  monasteries 
and  shrines  surpass  those  of  all  other  Orders. 
The  Monastery  of  its  General,  at  Konieh  (Iconium), 
in  Asia  Minor,  possesses  considerable  lands 
bequeathed  as  vakouf  by  the  old  Seljukian  Sultans, 
these  bequests  being  ratified  by  subsequent  princes. 
Murad  IV,  too,  when  marching  against  Persia  in 
1634,  bestowed  many  favours  and  distinctions  upon 
the  "  Sheikh  of  Sheikhs,"  as  their  Grand  Master  is 
termed,  and  endowed  his  community  as  a  perpetual 
vakouf  with  the  proceeds  of  the  kharatch,  the  poll- 
tax  imposed  on  the  non-Moslem  inhabitants  of  the 
city  in  lieu  of  mihtary  service,  now  aboHshed. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  these  substantial  en- 
dowments, the  Dervishes  have  never,  hke  the 
monastic  Orders  of  Christendom,  departed  from 
the  original  principles  of  their  founders.  Their 
manner  of  Hving  is  still  as  frugal  as  was  that 
of  the  original  Twelve  Orders,  and  the  architec- 
ture of  their  Tekkehs  is  marked  by  extreme  simplicity 


68  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

both  of  form  and  material,  any  ornamental  articles 
they  may  contain  being  the  gifts  of  the  pious  ;  while 
their  surplus  revenues  are  either  given  directly  to 
the  poor  in  the  shape  of  alms,  or  employed  in  the 
foundation  of  charitable  institutions  such  as 
almshouses,  schools,  or  baths. 

When  it  happens  that  a  Dervish  has  been  raised 
to  the  rank  of  Sheikh  by  the  General  of  his  Order, 
without  being  appointed  to  the  rule  of  a  special 
Tekkeh,  he  is  directed  to  take  up  his  abode  in  some 
town  which  has  been  indicated  to  his  Chief,  by 
means  of  a  dream  or  vision,  as  specially  marked  out 
for  the  establishment  of  a  new  community.  Here 
he  remains  until  the  citizens,  incited  by  a  pious 
emulation,  erect  a  Tekkeh  and  provide  for  its  sup- 
port. Most  of  the  existing  monasteries  have  sprung 
up  in  this  way  ;  and  the  practice,  to  some  extent, 
still  continues. 

It  is  not  unusual  to  find  Mevlevi  Sheikhs  engaged 
in  commercial  pursuits,  necessitated  by  the  nature 
of  the  source  from  which  their  revenues  are  derived. 
For  instance,  if  the  vakouf  consists  of  arable  land, 
and  is  cultivated  on  the  metayer  system,  the  sale 
of  the  produce  devolves  on  the  Sheikh,  who  generally 
proves  himself  well  able  to  fulfil  the  temporal,  as 
well  as  the  spiritual,  duties  of  his  office.  I  hap- 
pened one  day,  after  witnessing  a  performance  of 
the  Mevlevi  Dervishes  at  Salonica,  to  make  a 
remark  to  the  Inspector  of  Customs  on  the  pre- 
possessing appearance  and  reverend  bearing  of  the 
Sheikh,  a  handsome  man  in  the  prime  of  life.     "  Oh,** 


BEGGING   DERVISH   AND    NIGHT-WATCHMAN 


MONASTERIES  AND  SHRINES  69 

he  replied,  laughing,  '*  Ne  vous  fiez  pas  a  sa  bonne 
physionomie  ;  il  n'y  a  personne  qui  me  donne  plus 
d'embarras  dans  les  affaires."  But  even  St. 
Theresa,  it  appears,  was  a  very  good  business 
woman.  ^ 

The  great  founder  of  this  Order,  to  judge  from  the 
following  anecdote,  also  knew  how  to  turn  his 
position  to  account  for  the  advantage  of  his 
community  : — 

"  Whenever  the  grandees  of  Konieh  entertained 
a  desire  to  have  an  audience  of  the  Sheikh  Shemsu 
'd-Din  of  Tebriz,  they  would  request  Husam  ( Jelal's 
secretary)  to  procure  it  for  them  through  the 
influence  of  his  master  with  the  Sheikh.  Jelal  and 
Hu^am  used  to  tax  those  nobles  for  this  favour 
according  to  their  means  and  circumstances.  On 
one  occasion  the  Grand  Vizier  solicited  an  audience, 
and  was  taxed  at  forty  thousand  pieces  of  silver  ; 
which  sum,  after  much  chaffering,  was  reduced  to 
thirty  thousand.  At  his  audience  with  Shems,  the 
Vizier  was  so  charmed  with  the  mysteries  revealed  to 
him  that,  on  his  return  therefrom,  he  voluntarily 
sent  to  HusSm  the  ten  thousand  pieces  of  silver 
which  had  been  abated  from  the  sum  originally 
fixed.  These  moneys  were  always  expended  by 
Husam  as  he  saw  fit,  in  relieving  the  necessities  of 
the  holy  community,  and  the  families  of  Jelal,  the 
gold-beater  (Husam),and  their  various  dependents."  ^ 

^  See  Mrs.   Cunningham  Graham's  Life  of  St.   Theresa, 
1894. 

2   The  Acts  of  the  Adepts.     Sir  W.  Redhouse's  Translation. 
6 — (3119) 


70  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

The  Tekkehs  of  the  Bektashis  are  unostentatious 
groups  of  buildings,  consisting  of  cells  for  the 
brethren  and  a  plain  square  hall  for  their  common 
devotions.  In  the  centre  of  the  floor  is  a  large 
dodecangular  stone  called  the  Maidan  Tdsh,  on 
which,  during  all  their  ceremonies  except  that  of 
initiation,  stands  a  lighted  candle.  Around  this 
are  twelve  postakis,  or  sheepskin  mats,  significative 
of  the  twelve  Imams ;  the  one  nearest  to  a  niche  in 
the  wall  which  denotes  the  Kibleh,  or  direction  of 
Mekka,  being  the  seat  of  the  Sheikh,  and  the  others 
those  of  the  eleven  elders.  The  apartment  reserved 
for  the  Sheikh  is  called  the  "  cell  of  the  master." 
He,  however,  unless  under  a  vow  of  celibacy,  seldom 
occupies  it  permanently,  but  resides  with  his  family  ; 
and  the  rule  of  the  convent  in  his  absence  devolves 
upon  a  deputy  Sheikh,  the  senior  of  the  celibates. 
Those  of  the  Orders  who  for  various  reasons 
are,  Hke  the  Hamzavis,  under  the  ban  of  the  ruhng 
powers,  assemble  in  buildings  undistinguishable 
externally  from  ordinary  dwelling-houses. 

The  tombs  of  the  Evliya,  as  Moslem  saints  are 
called,  are  held  in  religious  veneration  in  all  Moham- 
medan countries,  and  are  honoured  by  the  erection 
over  them  of  Turbihs,  or  mausoleums.  A  Turbeh 
is  usually  a  square  edifice  with  a  domed  roof  built 
over  a  sarcophagus  of  stone  or  brickwork,  higher  at 
the  head  than  at  the  foot  and  rising  in  the  centre 
to  a  ridge.  To  some  Turbehs  are  attached  apart- 
ments in  which  reside  the  Dervishes  who  have 
charge  of  them.     The  walls  of  these  shrines  have 


MONASTERIES   AND   SHRINES  71 

grated  openings  through  which  can  be  seen  the 
tomb,  often  covered  with  rich  shawls  and  carpets, 
the  pious  offerings  of  recipients  of  benefits  beheved 
to  have  been  bestowed  through  the  mediation 
of  the  Saint  buried  there.  On  the  gratings  flutter 
innumerable  httle  coloured  rags,  portions  of  the 
clothing  of  rich  persons  who  hope  by  this  means 
to  transfer  their  diseases  to  the  Saint,  or  who  leave 
them  as  votive  tabellcB  to  remind  him  of  the  blessings 
hoped  for  through  his  mediation  with  Allah.  In  a 
niche  in  the  masonry  of  the  sarcophagus  a  small  lamp, 
fed  with  sweet  oil,  is  kept  continually  burning. 
These  lamps  symbohse  the  nur,  or  holy  hght,  which, 
it  is  said,  is  frequently  seen  to  hover  over  the  grave 
of  a  Saint,  and  has  made  known  the  resting-place 
of  many  holy  Dervishes  who  have  died  while  on 
journeys  or  pilgrimages. 

Among  the  famous  Sheikhs  who  held  the  post 
of  guardian  of  a  shrine  was  the  Pir,  Abdul  Kadr 
Ghilani,  the  founder  of  the  Kadiri  Order.  ^  He  had 
charge  of  the  tomb  of  the  celebrated  Imam,  Abu 
Khanife,  at  Bagdad,  where  he  also  was  buried. 
And  round  the  Turbeh  of  Abdul  Kadr  ("The  Rose 
of  Bagdad")  are  grouped  in  such  numbers  the 
domes  that  cover  the  mortal  remains  of  the  most 
renowned  mystics  of  the  East  that  the  locahty  is 
known  to  the  present  day  as  "  The  Grove  of  the 
Saints." 

The  Turbih  at  Broussa  of  the  famous  Dervish, 
Emir  Sultan,  ^  is  thus  described  by  Evhya  Eifendi, 

1  See  p.  18.     2  See  p.  33. 


72  MYSTICISM   AND   MAGIC 

who  visited  it  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century. ^  •    • 

"  He  is  buried  without  Broussa  to  the  east, 
beneath  a  lofty  dome.  The  gates  of  the  Turbeh 
are  inlaid  with  silver,  as  also  is  the  entrance,  at 
which  the  visitor  descends  six  steps.  The  walls 
are  covered  with  variegated  porcelain  tiles.  Four 
of  the  windows  look  westwards  towards  the  plain 
of  Broussa,  and  four  towards  the  Kibleh  (Mekka) 
into  the  yard  of  the  Turbeh.  The  great  number  of 
suspended  ornaments  which  adorn  the  interior  of 
the  mausoleum  are  equalled  only  in  the  Turbehs  of 
Medina  ;  the  silken  carpets  are  richer  than  are  found 
anywhere  else.  The  sarcophagus  is  surrounded  by 
gold  and  silver  lamps,  candlesticks,  and  vases  for 
holding  perfumes  and  rosewater  ;  on  the  richly- 
embroidered  silken  draperies  which  cover  it  lie 
Korans  writ  by  the  hands  of  famous  scribes  ;  ^  and 
at  the  head  a  large  turban  stands  majestically. 
Those  who  enter  are  struck  with  such  awe  that 
many  do  not  dare  to  attempt  it,  but  only  look  into 
it  by  a  window  at  the  head,  and  recite  a  Fatiha.^*  ^ 

1  Narrative  of  Travels. 

2  Though  printing  was  introduced  into  Turkey  more 
than  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  a  beautiful  manuscript  is 
at  the  present  day  preferred  to  a  printed  book,  and  many 
beautifully  written  and  illuminated  copies  of  the  Koran 
are  to  be  found  in  the  country,  as  a  prejudice  still  exists 
against  printing  the  Sacred  Book. 

3  The  first  chapter  of  the  Koran,  the  Moslem  Paternoster. 
"  Mohammedans  look  upon  the  Fatiha  as  the  quintessence 
of  the  whole  Koran,  and  often  repeat  it  in  their  devotions 
both  public  and  private."     Sale,  Al  Koran,  p.  1,  note. 


MONASTERIES  AND   SHRINES  73 

A  village  called  BektSshkeui,  near  Angora, 
contains  the  tomb  of  Hadji  Bektash,  the  founder  of 
the  Bektashi  Order.  It  stands  in  a  commanding 
position  overlooking  the  city,  under  the  dome  of 
a  Turbeh,  and  close  by  is  a  Tekkeh  occupied  by  a 
small  community  of  Bektashi  Dervishes.  This 
shrine  is  naturally  much  venerated,  and  visited  by 
pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  The  front 
of  the  Tekkeh  is  embellished  with  a  portico  or 
verandah,  supported  on  pillars  of  marble,  and  on 
the  side  of  a  well  in  the  court  visitors  are  shown 
indentations  said  to  have  been  made  by  the  teeth 
of  the  Saint,  and  in  the  doorway  the  impression  of 
his  hand.  In  the  vicinity  are  salt  mines  which, 
tradition  says,  were  miraculously  created  by 
Hadji  Bektash,  who,  when  passing  through  the 
village,  had  found  the  inhabitants  suffering  from 
a  scarcity  of  that  commodity.  This  village 
now  bears  the  name  of  Touzkeui,  the  "  Salt 
Village." 

At  Merdevenkeui,  a  village  not  far  from  the 
Asiatic  suburb  of  Kadikeui,  is  the  Turbeh  of  an 
eminent  Bektashi  saint,  once  a  Chaoush,  or  messenger 
in  the  service  of  Sultan  Achmet,  which  is  much 
frequented  by  pious  Moslems.  Close  by  is  a  large 
stone  said  to  possess  the  power  of  granting  the  wish 
of  any  person  standing  upon  it.  A  Turkish  lady  of 
my  acquaintance,  the  late  Besmi  Sultana,  attributed 
her  elevation  to  the  high  and  exceptional  position 
of  legal  wife  of  Sultan  Abdul  Med j  id  to  the  wish 
she    mentally    expressed    when    standing    on  this 


74  MYSTICISM   AND  MAGIC 

stone,  after,  of  course,  depositing  her  devotional 
offering  on  the  neighbouring  shrine  of  the 
Evliyd, 

Many  Turbehs,  however,  consist  merely  of  four 
roofless  walls,  pierced  with  grated  openings,  built 
round  the  sarcophagus.  Some  are  to  be  found  in 
the  crowded  thoroughfares  of  towns  and  cities, 
some  by  country  roadsides,  while  others  occupy 
corners  of  the  pubhc  burial  grounds.  At  Salonica, 
one  is  situated  at  the  entrance  to  the  bazaar,  and 
another  curiously  located  in  the  cellar  basement  of 
a  Jewish  merchant's  warehouse,  the  tomb  being 
visible  from  the  street  through  a  grated  opening 
close  to  the  ground.  The  cost  of  the  hghts  always 
kept  burning  in  these  humbler  shrines  is  defrayed 
either  by  some  pious  bequest,  or  by  the  offerings  of 
the  passers-by. 

It  is  customary  for  a  visitor,  or  pilgrim,  on  arriving 
at  a  turbeh,  to  greet  its  saintly  occupant  as  he  would 
a  hving  person  with  the  beautiful  Oriental  saluta- 
tion, "  Peace  be  with  you  "  (Salaam  aleikum).  He 
then  recites  a  Fatiha^  before  the  entrance,  and, 
walking  round  the  grave  from  left  to  right,  repeats 
it  at  each  of  the  four  sides.  Sometimes  a  longer 
sura  of  the  Koran  is  used,  or,  perhaps,  as  in  the  case 
of  a  devout  Dervish  on  his  pilgrimage,  the  whole  of 
the  Sacred  Book.  The  recitation  concludes  with 
this  collect,  apparently  addressed  to  the  Saint : 
"  Extol  the  perfection  of  thy  Lord,  the  Lord  of 
might,    exempting    Him    from    that    which    they 

1  See  above,  p.  72. 


MONASTERIES  AND  SHRINES  75 

[Christians]  ascribe  to  Him  "  [i.e.  having  a  partaker 
of  his  Godhead]. 

These  arts  of  devotion  are  generally  performed 
for  the  sake  of  the  Saint,  though  the  merit  of  them 
is  also  beheved  to  reflect  at  the  same  time  upon 
the  pilgrim  who  makes  the  recitation,  and  adds  the 
words  "  Peace  be  upon  the  Apostles  and  praise  be 
to  Allah,  the  Lord  of  all  creatures.     0  Allah  I  I  have 
transferred  the  merit  of  what  I  have  recited  from 
the  excellent  Koran  to  the  soul  of  this  Saint,"    When 
prayers  are  offered  for  some  special  blessing — which 
usually,  if  not  for  health  or  dehverance  from  some 
impending  calamity,  is  of  a  purely  worldly  nature, 
such  as  the  furtherance  of  some  ambitious  project, 
or  the  favour  of  the  Sultan,  or  some  other  dignitary 
whose  influence  is  required— the  following,  or  some 
similar  formula,  is  used  :   "  0  Allah  !  I  conjure  Thee 
by  the  Prophet,  and  by  him  to  whom  this  place  is 
dedicated,  to  grant  me,"  etc.     The  hands  of  the 
suppliant  are  held  upwards  and  open  during  the 
prayer,   and,    at  its    conclusion,    passed   over   the 
face.     Some  fervent  pilgrims,  hke  Evhya   Effendi, 
kiss  the  threshold,  others  the  walls,  windows,  and 
grave-coverings  of  the  holy  shrines. 

The  prayers  of  the  guardians  of  Turbehs  are  also 
often  soUcited  by  those  in  need  of  spiritual  consolation 
and  assistance.  These  watchers  of  the  holy  dead 
are  often  Sheikhs  who  have  abandoned  the  world 
for  this  purpose,  and  whose  hves  of  undoubted  purity 
exalt  them  to  the  position  of  intermediaries  between 
the   Saint   and   ordinary   sinful   men.     They  have 


76  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

often  one  or  more  disciples  to  assist  them  in  their 
pious  duties,  who  in  due  time  succeed  their 
spiritual  guide  in  his  office.  The  revenues  are 
derived  chiefly  from  the  offerings  of  pilgrims,  but 
in  some  cases  iurbehSy  like  tekkehSy  are  endowed  with 
landed  property. 

The  tombs  of  Christian  saints,  strange  to  say, 
come  in  for  their  share  of  the  general  hagiolatry, 
though,  as  the  Christians  also  patronise  Moslem 
saints,  this  is  but  a  quid  pro  quo.  The  beautiful 
basilica  of  St.  Dimitri  at  Salonica,  built  in  the  fifth 
century  over  the  miracle-working  tomb  of  that 
Saint,  was,  in  1180,  for  the  second  time,  converted 
into  a  mosque.  On  the  removal  of  the  'Ayia  Tpdire^a 
— the  Holy  Table  of  the  Greek  Church — the  relics 
which  had  had  their  resting-place  beneath  it  were 
reverently  removed  to  a  cell  at  the  north-west  corner 
of  the  narthex.  The  Greeks  and  other  Christians  are 
now  allowed  to  visit  this  shrine  freely  ;  and  the  old 
Mevlevi  Dervish,  who  acts  as  caretaker  of  the  mosque, 
appears  to  have  no  less  faith  in  the  miraculous 
powers  of  St.  Dimitri  than  have  the  numerous 
members  of  the  Orthodox  Church  who  make  pilgrim- 
ages to  his  shrine.  One  of  my  visits  to  this  ancient 
Metropolitan  Church  was  paid  in  company  with  a 
Greek  matron  who,  having  been  educated  in  Ger- 
many and  France,  was  a  thorough  sceptic  in  such 
matters.  Seeing  that  we  were  strangers,  the 
Dervish  enumerated  in  his  broken  Greek  the  virtues 
and  antiquity  of  the  Saint.  He  then  fumbled 
under  the  tombstone  and  produced  a  handful  of 


MONASTERIES  AND  SHRINES  77 

earth  and  what  looked  like  a  long  mesh  of  cotton 
candlewick.  Having  ascertained  from  my  friend 
her  name,  and  the  names  of  her  husband,  father- 
in-law,  and  children,  the  old  man  slowly  repeated 
them,  tying  at  each  name  a  knot  in  the  cotton 
over  the  flame  of  the  candle  burning  on  the  tomb, 
and  then  presented  her  with  this  girdle  with  the 
assurance  that,  if  worn  on  the  person  it  would 
relieve  her  or  them  of  any  of  the  ills  to  which  the 
flesh  is  heir.  I  was  also  the  fortunate  recipient  of 
a  small  quantity  of  greasy  earth,  from  which  I  was 
promised  similar  benefits.^ 

1  An  odoriferous  unguent  (fivpov)  is  said  to  exude 
from  the  bones  of  certain  saints  who  from  this  circumstance 
are  called  iJ.vpoB\vTai.  St.  Nicholas  is  one  of  these 
myroblites.  Sir  John  Maunderville,  speaking  of  the  relics 
of  St.  Catharine,  on  Mount  Sinai,  says,  "  The  prelate  of  the 
Monkes  schewethe  the  Relykes  to  the  Pilgrymes.  And 
with  an  Instrument  of  Sylver,  he  frotethe  the  Bones  :  and 
thanne  ther  gothe  out  a  lytylle  Oyle,  as  thoughe  it  were  in 
a  maner  swetynge,  that  is  nouther  like  to  Oyle  ne  to 
Bawme  ;  but  it  is  fulle  swete  of  smelle."  (Quoted  by 
Mr.  Athelstan  Riley  in  Mount  Athos,  p.  127  n.) 


CHAPTER   V 

MONASTIC   RULE   AND   DISCIPLINE 

"  Who  Poverty's  low  door  to  enter  e'er  has  sought, 
Aye  to  his  death  beneath  its  roof  remains, 

Lays  greed  aside,  and,  as  a  monarch  reigns  ; 

For  proud  the  station  is  of  him  who  needeth  naught." 

A  Dervish  Tekkeh,  or  convent,  usually  contains 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  disciples,  ruled  over  by  a 
Sheikh.  The  Sheikh  has  unlimited  power  and 
authority  in  the  Tekkeh.  If  it  is  endowed  with 
vakouf  property,  he  sells  the  produce  of  the  farms, 
regulates  the  expenditure  of  the  Tekkeh,  and  dis- 
tributes its  alms.  If  his  convent  is  unendowed,  he 
looks  for  its  support  to  the  pious  and  charitable — 
the  "  Friends  of  Allah."  For,  occupied  as  he  is 
supposed  continually  to  be  with  spiritual  matters, 
a  Sheikh  cannot,  like  his  disciples,  follow  a  worldly 
avocation,  but  must  live — according  to  the  Dervish 
expression — "  on  the  Doorstep  of  Allah."  The  dis- 
ciples are  also  expected  to  contribute  to  his  support 
and  to  the  other  expenses  of  the  Tekkeh  :  and  it  is 
usual  for  them  to  bring  some  small  present  every 
time  they  visit  him.  As  every  detail  of  convent 
life  is  symbolical,  this  custom  is  said  to  commemo- 
rate the  offerings  brought  by  Gabriel  to  Adam,  after 
his  expulsion  from  Paradise,  and  which,  the  legend 
says,  consisted  of  a  kind  of  small  loaves  and  corn, 

78 


MONASTIC   RULE  AND   DISCIPLINE     79 

with  parrots  and  turtle  doves  for  his  entertainment, 
and  swallows  and  hens  for  that  of  Eve.^ 

Each  Order  has  its  Chief  Sheikh,  or  General,  who 
resides  in  the  city  or  town  which  contains  the 
tomb  of  its  founder  (Pir),  and  is  considered  the 
guardian  of  the  sacred  relics.  Bagdad,  as  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  is  the  burial  place  of 
Abdul  Kadr  Ghilani,  the  founder  of  the  Kadiri 
Order,  and  his  eminence  in  the  Dervish  world 
caused  many  succeeding  Pirs  to  choose  their  place  of 
sepulture  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  tomb.  This 
city  is,  consequently,  a  great  centre  of  Dervish 
Generals.  Konieh  (Iconium),  in  Asia  Minor,  is  the 
seat  of  the  Mevlevi  General,  the  successor  and  lineal 
descendant  of  the  talented  Jelalu-'d-Din.  For  the 
dignity  of  Sheikh  is  hereditary  in  the  Mevlevi, 
Bektashi,  and  Kadiri  Orders.  If  the  son  be  a  minor 
at  the  death  of  his  father,  one  of  the  elders  is  elected 
to  act  as  his  deputy  (Naih  Khalifeh)  until  he  reaches 
the  age  of  twenty.  In  the  other  Orders  a  council  of 
Sheikhs,  presided  over  by  the  General,  choose 
a  new  Prior  from  among  the  disciples  of  the  deceased 
Murshid,  who  do  not  appear  to  have  any  voice 
in  the  matter.  Their  choice  falls,  as  a  rule,  on 
the  elder  who  has  so  distinguished  himself  by  his 

1  The  Mohammedan  legend  says  that  the  swallows  were 
the  means  of  reconciliation  between  Adam  and  Eve  after 
their  expulsion  from  Paradise  when  they  had  gone  different 
ways.  They  found  out  Adam  in  Ceylon,  and  brought  a 
hair  of  his  beard  to  Eve  who  was  at  Jedda,  returning  with 
one  of  her  hairs  to  Adam  ;  and  the  pair  met  on  Mount 
Arafat,  near  Mekka. 


80  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

spiritual  advancement  as  to  have  previously  held 
the  post  of  Deputy  Sheikh  ;  or,  if  such  a  functionary 
is  not  to  be  found  in  the  convent,  on  one  of  the 
elders,  generally  the  senior.  The  nomination  is 
then  notified  to  the  Sheikh-ul-Islam,  or  Grand  Mufti, 
from  whose  hands  a  new  Prior  must  receive  his 
investiture,  even  when  he  succeeds  to  the  rule  of 
a  convent  by  right  of  heredity.  This  is,  however, 
merely  a  matter  of  form,  being  a  nominal  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  Sheikh-ul-Islam  as  the  spiritual 
head  (under  the  Sultan)  of  the  Mohammedan 
world  ;  for  custom  and  prejudice  have  rendered 
it  almost  impossible  for  that  dignitary  to  refuse 
to  invest  a  Sheikh  chosen  by  the  Dervish  primates. 
According  to  the  rules  of  a  few  Orders,  a  Prior 
is  free  to  leave  his  mantle  of  succession  at  his  death 
to  the  disciple  whom  he  may  deem  most  worthy  of 
it ;  and  in  those  Orders  in  which  the  office  is 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  its  founder,  if  the  Sheikh 
leave  no  son  or  immediate  heir,  the  heads  of  several 
convents  of  the  same  Order  meet  and  choose  a 
successor  ;  or  the  members  of  his  community  elect 
one  of  their  own  number,  generally  the  senior,  to 
the  vacant  office.  Such  a  choice  is  not,  however, 
made  without  much  dehberation,  fasting,  and  prayer 
for  divine  guidance  ;  and,  consequently,  there  is  no 
unseemly  rivalry  among  the  brethren,  for  the  result 
of  their  prayers  and  deliberations  is  looked  upon  as 
the  revelation  of  the  will  of  Allah,  and  their  choice, 
made  with  such  solemnity,  is  consequently  ratified 
by  the  Grand  Mufti  without  demur. 


AN  ELDER  OF  THE  MEVLEVI  ORDER 


MONASTIC  RULE  AND  DISCIPLINE     81 

Many  of  the  Dervish  Sheikhs  are  Seyyids,  or 
Hneal  descendants  of  the  family  of  the  Prophet, 
through  the  grandsons  of  his  nephew  and  son-in-law, 
the  Khahf  AU,  who  escaped  the  massacre  in  which 
their  fathers,  Hasan  and  Husam — "  The  Martyrs  " — 
lost  their  Hves.  Seyyids  are  distinguished  by 
their  green  turbans,  and  enjoy  pecuHar  privi- 
leges. They  are  not  under  the  same  jurisdiction  as 
ordinary  Mussulmans,  but  are  ruled  by  a  func- 
tionary called  the  Nakeb-el-Eshref,  who  resides 
at  Constantinople.  Everyone  claiming  to  be  a 
descendant  of  the  Prophet  is  required  to  possess  a 
document  estabhshing  his  genealogy. 

If  a  Sheikh  is  a  cehbate,  he  resides  in  the  convent, 
where  a  special  apartment  called  the  "  cell  of  the 
Master  "  is  reserved  for  his  use.  Many  of  the  heads 
of  convents,  however,  are  married,  though  it  is 
considered  necessary  for  them  to  receive,  in  a  vision, 
a]spiritual  dispensation  before  taking  to  themselves 
wives  ;  and  such  Priors  appoint  deputies  to  rule 
over  the  monastic  brethren  in  the  convents  during 
their  absence.  Like  most  Ottomans  of  the  present 
day  they  are,  as  a  rule,  monogamists,  but  not  always, 
nor  are  their  wives  always  saintly  women. 
Some  years  ago  I  paid  a  visit  to  the  harem  of  the 
Mevlevi  Prior  of  Magnesia  (ad  Sipylum),  in 
Asia  Minor,  who  ranks  next  in  the  Order  to  the 
General  at  Konieh.  He  had  two  wives.  The  Bash 
Kadin,  or  first  wife,  to  whom  he  had  been  married 
some  years,  but  who  was  childless,  was  dark-haired 
and  handsome,   but  with  a  rather  haughty  and 


82  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

ill-tempered  expression,  increased,  perhaps,  by  the 
thick  eyebrows  painted  to  meet  over  the  nose. 
The  second  wife,  not  long  a  bride,  was  of  the  fair 
Circassian  type,  brown-haired  and  blue-eyed,  and 
evidently  a  little  in  awe  of  her  imperious-looking 
companion.  We  were  also  courteously  received 
in  the  selamlik  by  the  Sheikh,  a  handsome  man  in 
the  prime  of  life  whose  dignified  presence  was 
enhanced  by  his  flowing  mantle  of  hght  fawn- 
coloured  cloth  and  his  tall  Dervish  hat.  One  of 
his  neophytes,  a  fine  youth  of  seventeen  or  there- 
abouts, was,  as  we  took  our  leave,  commissioned  by 
his  Murshid  to  show  us  some  of  the  sights  of  the 
town.  Magnesia  being  built  on  the  lower  slopes 
of  Mount  Sipylus,  its  upper  streets  are  so  steep  that 
they  are  terraced  into  staircases.  As  we  toiled 
upwards,  the  young  Dervish,  who  was  kindly  carry- 
ing a  little  girl  belonging  to  our  party,  was  asked 
by  a  group  of  children  whom  we  passed,  "  Are  you 
not  ashamed  to  be  going  about  with  Giaours  ?  " 
The  neophyte  made  no  reply,  but  turned  again  with 
an  apologetic  smile  to  continue  his  conversation 
with  the  mother  of  the  little  girl.  Had  this  mere 
boy  already  learned  the  main  precept  of  his  Order, 
which  may  be  summed  up  in  the  one  word — 
Love  ? 

The  domestic  peace  of  another  married  Sheikh 
at  Adrianople  was  much  disturbed  by  the  unruly 
temper  of  his  wife.  The  garden  of  his  house  adjoined 
that  of  an  English  lady,  who,  though  she  main- 
tained friendly  relations  with  the  holy  man,  was 


MONASTIC  RULE  AND   DISCIPLINE    83 

very  often  disturbed  by  the  cries  of  his  passionate 
and  ill-tempered  spouse.  Nor  could  the  good 
man  make  use  of  his  privilege  of  divorce  to  rid 
himself  of  his  uncongenial  helpmeet,  as  he  was 
not  in  a  position  to  pay  the  sum  promised  in  the 
marriage  contract  (nekyah)  in  case  of  such  a 
contingency. 

Early  one  morning  my  friend  was  disturbed  by 
cries  of  "  Fire  "  (Yangen  var  f)  proceeding  from-  the 
Sheikh's  abode.  Snatching  up  a  can  of  water,  she 
hastened  downstairs,  and,  followed  by  her  servants 
with  pails,  entered  her  neighbour's  premises  through 
a  gate  in  the  garden  wall.  No  indications  of  a 
conflagration  were,  however,  visible.  But  in  front 
of  the  house  stood  the  Dervish  with  his  ebony  arm- 
rest in  his  hand,  while  on  the  ground  sat  his  wife, 
sobbing  hysterically  ;  and  it  was  only  too  evident 
that  the  holy  man's  patience  had  been  at  last  tried 
beyond  further  endurance,  and  that  he  had 
administered  the  correction  that  had  been  only  too 
long  deserved. 

To  arrive  at  the  degree  of  spirituality  required 
in  those  who  fill  the  office  of  Deputy  Prior,  a 
Dervish  must  have  spent  much  time  in  prayer, 
fasting,  and  complete  abstraction  from  all  worldly 
pursuits.  Besides  being  far  advanced  on  the 
spiritual  path,  and  familiar  with  all  the  mystical 
dogmas  and  tenets  of  the  Order,  he  must  possess 
the  respect,  reverence,  and  entire  submission  of  the 
rest  of  the  community.  By  constant  prayer  and  the 
continued  performance  of  the  Zikr,  his  breath,  and 


84  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

even  his  touch,  should  have  acquired  a  sanctifying  and 
heahng  influence,  and  he  must  also  be  believed  to 
possess  the  power  of  working  miracles.  He  will 
be  favoured  with  visions,  and  by  their  import  his 
superior  is  able  to  judge  when  his  spiritual  training 
may  be  considered  complete,  when  he  terminates 
the  period  of  his  seclusion.  He  will  then 
commence  his  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  cities  and 
the  tombs  of  the  saints,  and,  perhaps,  may  proceed 
as  far  as  Bagdad,  if  the  founder  of  his  Order  be 
among  the  many  saints  buried  there,  when  it  will 
also  be  his  duty  to  visit  the  burial  place  of  the 
grandsons  of  the  Prophet  at  Kerbeleh,  in  the  vicinity 
of  that  city. 

Each  of  the  twelve  members  of  a  Bektashi  fra- 
ternity has  some  special  office  attached  to  his  postaki 
(sheepskin  seat).  Some  of  these  would  appear  to 
entail  a  certain  amount  of  manual  labour,  while 
others  have  merely  nominal,  or  at  most  only 
occasional,  duties.    They   are   as  follows  : — 

1.  The  Sheikh.  8.  The  Bagbearer. 

2.  The  Cook.  9.  The  Sacrificer. 

3.  The  Baker.  10.  The  attendant  of  the 

4.  The  Deputy  Shekh.  Tekkeh. 

5.  The  Superintendent.  11.  The  Groom.  ^ 

6.  The  Steward.  12,  The  attendant  on  the 

7.  The  Coffee-maker.  guests. 

1  Commemorative  of  Kamber,  the  groom  of  the  Khalif 
Ali. 


MONASTIC  RULE  AND   DISCIPLINE     85 

The  other  Orders  appear  to  have  officers  more  or 
less  similar  to  these  attached  to  the  service  of  the 
convent. 

Though  all  Dervishes  are  free  to  leave  the  Order 
into  which  they  have  originally  entered  and  join 
another,  or  even  to  return  to  the  world,  it  is  very 
rare  that  any  use  is  made  of  the  hberty.  Each 
member  seems  to  regard  it  as  a  sacred  duty  to  remain 
faithful  for  life  to  the  Order  that  first  received  him, 
and  in  its  dress  to  end  his  days.  To  this  spirit  of 
devotion  they  add  that  of  perfect  submission  to 
the  will  of  their  Prior.  "  Consider  your  guide 
(Murshid)  as  the  greatest  of  all  guides,"  and  "  What- 
ever you  do  or  think,  let  your  Sheikh  be  always 
present  to  your  mind,"  are  two  primary  obhgations 
expressed  by  a  formula  called  the  rabouta,  which  is 
repeated  by  them  as  scrupulously  as  is  the  namdz  by 
the  orthodox  Mohammedans.  HumiHty  of  spirit 
and  demeanour  are  required  from  all ;  they  are 
taught  not  to  consider  themselves  superior  to  others, 
but  to  rank  themselves  as  the  poorest,  lowest,  and 
most  humble  of  mankind.  Hence,  not  only  in  the 
cloister,  but  in  all  their  deahngs  with  the  outer 
world,  these  mystics  are  distinguished  by  the  deep 
humihty  of  their  manner.  Their  heads  are  ever 
bent,  their  gaze  absorbed  ;  and  the  words  Ay  V 
Allah  (Thanks  to  God)  are  ever  upon  their  lips.  They 
must  not  divulge  the  secrets  of  the  Order  to  their 
wives  or  relatives,  nor  to  anyone  who  is  not,  like 
them,  a  "  seeker  after  the  Truth." 

Special    forms    of    salutation    are    used    by    the 

7— (2119) 


86  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

Dervishes.  As  the  Love  of  God  is  the  principal  of 
the  Mevlevis,  their  salutation  is  "  Let  it  be  Love  !  " 
(Eshk  olsoun)  ;  but  that  in  general  use  among  the 
Orders  is  "  Ya  Hoo  /  "  (O  Him).  After  the  reception 
of  a  Dervish  into  an  Order  the  only  salutation 
required  of  him  on  entering  the  Tekkeh  is  to  incline 
his  head  gently  towards  the  Sheikh,  and  lay  the 
right  hand  across  the  breast  near  the  neck,  in  token 
of  perfect  submission  to  him.  It  is  said  that 
brethren  not  in  costume  recognise  each  other  in 
public  by  placing  the  right  hand,  as  if  accidentally, 
on  the  chin.  It  is  also  customary  for  Dervishes 
when  entering  the  Tekkeh  or  on  meeting  each  other, 
to  place  the  right  hand  on  the  heart,  and,  gently 
inchning  the  body,  to  exclaim  "  Yd  Hoo,  Evens  I " 
(O  Him,  Brethren),  the  reply  to  which  is ''Ay  Vallah, 
Shahim  (Good,  by  Allah,  my  Shah).  On  making  an 
enquiry  concerning  the  health,  they  say,  "  Health, 
my  Joys  !  "  and  the  reply  is  "  Good,  by  Allah,  my 
brother."  Their  other  salutations  on  meeting  and 
taking  leave  are  Hoo,  dost  Erenler  (Him,  dear  friend), 
and  Aye  Vallah  Hoo  dost.  Towards  those  who  are 
not  Dervishes  they,  however,  use  the  ordinary 
beautiful  Mohammedan  greeting.  Salaam  aleikoum 
(Peace  be  to  thee). 

There  are  special  prayers  and  formulas  for  every 
event  and  detail  of  convent  life.  Those  of  the 
Bektashis  are  seventy-six  in  number,  and  are  called 
by  the  symbolical  name  of  "  Interpreters."  On 
crossing  the  doorsill  of  the  Tekkeh,  they  say  : — 

"  I  have  placed  my  head  and  my  heart  on  the 


MONASTIC  RULE  AND  DISCIPLINE     87 

sill  of  the  door  of  repentance,  so  that  my  body  may 
be  pure  as  gold.  Deign,  O  Sheikh,  to  turn  your 
eyes  for  an  instant  on  this  poor  man  (faqir).^^ 

On  presenting  an  offering  to  his  superior,  the 
disciple  says  : — 

"  The  ant  brought  as  an  offering  to  Solomon  the 
thigh  of  a  grasshopper.  Thou,  O  Sheikh,  art 
Solomon,  and  I  am  thy  ant ;  accept  my  humble 
offering." 

On  asking  for  hospitahty  at  a  Tekkeh,  or  Turbeh, 
the  traveller  says  : — 

"  Allah  is  our  Friend  !  Peace  to  the  dwellers  in 
this  Tekkeh.  Love  to  those  who  are  joyful,  and  to 
all  the  poor  men  (fouqara)  now  present ;  to  the  Pirs 
and  to  the  Sheikhs  ;  to  the  dwellers  in  this  house  of 
the  Shah  (AH)." 

The  grace  before  meals  of  the  Bektashis  differs 
from  that  used  by  the  Kadiris  and  the  generality  of 
the  Orders.     It  runs  thus  : — 

"  O  Allah  !  0  Allah  !  By  the  horn  of  the  arch- 
angel Israfeel !  by  the  symbolism  of  Kamber  !  by 
the  hght  of  the  Prophet !  by  the  altar  and  the  pulpit ! 
by  our  sovereign  Pir,  Hadji  Bektash  Vali !  by  our 
General !  by  the  breath  {nefs)  of  the  Three,  the  Five, 
the  Seven,  and  the  Forty  True  Saints,  we  thank 
Thee.     Hoo  !  " 

The  following  is  the  grace  used  by  the  Kadiris. 
That  of  the  other  Orders  differs  from  it  only  in  the 
name  of  the  founder  : — 

"  Praise  be  to  Allah !  May  He  increase  His 
bounties.     By  the  blessings  of  Abraham  !    By  the 


88  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

Light  of  the  Prophet !  By  the  grace  of  Ah  !  By  the 
war  cry  of  Mohammed  !  By  the  secret  of  Abdul 
Kadr  Ghilani,  we  beseech  Thee  to  be  gracious  to 
our  Lord  (the  P/r)."  It  is  a  rule  of  the  Order  of 
the  Hamzavis,  obligatory  on  all  members,  to  retain 
in  their  minds  during  their  meals,  both  when  with 
others  as  well  as  when  alone,  a  continual  remem- 
brance of  God  ;  and  after  they  have  eaten,  to  offer 
devout  thanks. 

Notwithstanding  that  all  the  Orders  are  nominally 
mendicant,  and  dependent  for  subsistence  on  the 
offerings  of  the  pious,  begging  is  strictly  forbidden, 
save  among  the  Bektashis  and  wandering  Dervishes. 
These,  who  deem  it  meritorious  to  live  upon  alms, 
frequent  the  bazaars  and  pubUc  streets  for  the 
purpose  of  recommending  themselves  to  the  charity 
of  passers-by.  Their  formula  of  request  is  generally 
"  Something,  for  the  love  of  Allah."  Many  Bek- 
tashis, however,  make  it  a  rule  to  support  themselves 
by  handicraft  trades,  and  particularly  by  making, 
in  imitation  of  their  Pir,  Hadji  Bektash,  small 
articles  of  wood,  such  as  spoons,  ladles,  bowls,  and 
graters.  They  also  carve  out  of  pieces  of  marble  the 
fastenings  used  by  Dervishes  of  that  order  for  their 
belts  and  for  the  collars  of  their  garments,  and  fash- 
ion the  two-beaked  bowls  (keshgool)  used  by  the  men- 
dicants when  soliciting  alms.  The  monastic  brethren 
belonging  to  the  other  and  endowed  Orders  are 
suppHed  only  with  food  and  lodging  at  the  expense 
of  the  Tekkeh.  Their  meals,  which  are  very  simple, 
and  consist,  as  a  rule,  of  two  dishes  only,  are  usually 


MONASTIC   RULE  AND  DISCIPLINE     89 

eaten  in  the  solitude  of  the  cells  ;  but  on  certain 
occasions  the  brethren  dine  together  in  the  common 
room.  Each  Dervish  is  required  to  provide  himself 
with  dress  and  other  necessaries,  and,  though  hving 
in  the  convent,  follows  some  trade  or  profession. 
Those  who  are  good  calligraphists  find  employment 
in  copying  the  Koran  and  other  rehgious  books. 
If  any  are  without  resources,  they  seldom  fail  to 
receive  contributions  either  from  their  relations, 
an  allowance  from  the  Prior,  or  a  pension  from 
some  wealthy  individual.  For  although,  as  above 
remarked,  the  members  of  the  majority  of  the  Order 
are  forbidden  to  ask  for  alms,  they  are  allowed  to 
accept  gifts  when  offered  by  charitable  persons  "  for 
the  love  of  Allah."  The  rule  against  begging  appears 
also  to  be  relaxed  in  the  case  of  Dervishes  on  their 
pilgrimage,  as  they  are  then  usually  without  their 
ordinary  means  of  support.  Many  Mohammedans 
reserve  their  alms  exclusively  for  the  Dervishes,  and 
make  it  their  duty  to  seek  out  those  of  high  reputation 
for  sanctity,  visit  them  frequently,  and  supply 
their  wants.  Others,  again,  even  lodge  and  board 
holy  men  in  their  houses,  in  the  hope  of  thus  drawing 
upon  themselves,  their  families,  and  their  fortunes 
the  blessings  of  heaven. 

All  married  Dervishes  reside  with  their  famihes, 
but  sleep  in  the  convent  once  or  twice  a  week  on  the 
nights  preceding  their  religious  exercises.  No 
married  Dervish  is,  however,  allowed  to  pass  the 
night  in  the  Tekkeh  of  the  Mevlevi  General  at  Konieh. 
The  lay  brethren,  after  passing  their  novitiate  in 


90  MYSTICISM   AND  MAGIC 

the  Tekkeh,  return  to  their  ordinary  avocations  ; 
withdrawing,  however,  as  much  as  possible  from  all 
intercourse  with  the  world,  and  endeavouring  to 
lead  spiritual  and  holy  hves. 

Various  forms  of  punishment  and  penance  are 
imposed  on  erring  Dervishes  by  their  Sheikh  accord- 
ing to  the  gravity  of  the  offence.  Evhya  Effendi 
says  that  when  a  disciple  has  committed  any  fault 
or  breach  of  discipline,  he  is  judged  by  a  council 
composed  of  the  Prior  and  the  elders,  and  sentenced 
to  a  term  of  imprisonment  not  exceeding  three  days, 
as  a  longer  period  of  incarceration  might  be  detri- 
mental to  his  family  and  worldly  affairs.  The 
council  are,  however,  careful  to  examine  well  into 
any  accusation,  and  not  to  punish  the  defaulter  too 
severely.  In  former  times  the  bastinado  was 
inflicted  by  the  Sheikh  on  his  erring  disciples.  He 
was,  however,  required,  when  striking,  never  to  lift 
the  stick  higher  than  his  ear,  to  do  which  was 
reckoned  "  mere  injustice  and  passionate  behaviour." 
Another  punishment  was  that  of  carrying  a  heavy 
stone  suspended  round  the  neck,  a  custom  which  is 
said  to  have  originated  with  Moses.  ^  It  is  a  sin  for 
a  Dervish  to  speak  a  word  which  is  contrary  to  the 
four  "  gates,"  or  principles  of  Justice,  Truth,  Order, 
and  Knowledge.  One  who  speaks  useless  or  pur- 
poseless words  is  said  to  have  strayed  from  the 
Path  (Tariq).  This  general  habit  of  reticence  is 
variously  illustrated  in  Dervish  writings.  "  A 
Dervish,  when  asked  by  one  of  his  brethren  what 

1  See  p,  115. 


MONASTIC   RULE  AND   DISCIPLINE     91 

marvellous  gift  he  had  brought  back  with  him 
from  the  garden  of  delights  he  had  visited  in  his 
ecstatic  trance,  rephed  :  *  I  intended,  on  arriving 
at  the  Rosebush  (the  presence  of  Allah)  to  fill  the 
skirt  of  my  robe  with  roses,  in  order  to  offer  them 
to  my  brethren  on  my  return.  But  when  I  arrived 
at  the  Rosebush,  its  odour  so  intoxicated  my  senses 
that  the  hem  of  my  robe  escaped  from  my  grasp.' 
Silent  is  the  tongue  of  the  man  who  has  known  Allah.^^  ^ 

It  is  also  related  of  Jelalu-'d-Dm  that  when  one 
day  on  a  visit  to  a  fellow  Sheikh  of  great  repute,  he 
was  asked  by  a  Dervish  who  happened  to  be  present, 
"  What  is  Poverty  ?  '*  Jelal  returned  no  answer, 
and  the  question  was  thrice  repeated.  When  the 
poet  left,  the  Sheikh,  after  accompanying  him  to 
the  door,  returned  to  the  Dervish  and  severely 
reprimanded  him  for  his  insolent  intrusion  on  his 
distinguished  guest,  which,  he  said,  "  was  the  more 
inexcusable  as  he  (Jelal)  fully  answered  thy  question 
the  first  time  thou  didst  put  it."  The  Dervish, 
surprised,  asked  what  the  answer  had  been.  "  A 
poor  man  (faqir)''  rephed  the  Prior,  "  is  one  who, 
having  known  Allah,  hath  his  tongue  tied."^ 

Many  Dervishes  voluntarily  practise  a  most  rigid 
abstinence.  Those  of  the  Khalveti  Order  occasion- 
ally perform  a  painful  fast  of  forty  days'  duration, 
living  during  that  period  on  bread  and  water  alone. 
As  mentioned  in  a  preceding  chapter,  the  word 
Khalvet  signifies  "  retirement,"  and  the  Sheikh  of 
that  name  who  founded  this  Order  practised  it  to 

1  The  Mesnevi.  ^  Ibid. 


92  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

a  great  extent.^  Devout  Dervishes  in  all  the 
Orders  condemn  themselves  to  the  performance  of 
acts  of  the  utmost  austerity,  and  remain  for  a  long 
time  shut  up  in  their  cells  for  the  purposes  of  prayer 
and  meditation.  Certain  nights  being  considered 
pecuharly  holy  as  anniversaries  of  some  event 
in  the  life  of  the  Prophet,  ^  these  are  specially 
consecrated  to  penitence  and  prayer.  In  order  to 
drive  away  sleep,  some  will  stand  for  whole  nights 
in  constrained  attitudes ;  others,  in  order  to  maintain 
themselves  in  a  sitting  posture,  tie  their  hair  to  a 
cord  hanging  from  the  ceiling,  a  practice  called 
chilleh ;  others  again  fasten  their  limbs  together 
with  a  leather  strap  passed  round  their  necks  and 
holding  the  knees  up  to  the  chin. 

If  a  Dervish,  when  on  his  pilgrimage  to  the  holy 
places,  neglects  or  fails  to  perform  any  of  the  pre- 
scribed rites  and  ceremonies  attached  to  that 
sacred  duty,  he  atones  for  it  by  a  sacrifice.  On  the 
same  principle,  a  Dervish  who  finds  himself  guilty 
under  other  circumstances  of  a  sin  of  omission  or 
commission,  brands  himself  with  a  hot  iron  in  order 
to  avoid  the  punishment  of  purgatorial  fires  in  the 
next  world.    According  to  Evhya  Effendi,  "  those 

1  See  above,  p.  18. 

2  For  instance,  the  anniversary  of  the  Prophet's  birth  ; 
the  27th  night  of  Ramazan,  called  the  "  Night  of  Power," 
at  one  moment  of  which,  according  to  popular  belief,  all 
inanimate  things — trees,  plants  and  mountains — bow  them- 
selves in  adoration  of  Allah,  and  all  waters  taste  sweet  ; 
and  the  "  Excellent  Night,"  the  10th  of  the  month  of 
Shaban  when  the  Recording  Angels  deliver  up  their  books 
to  the  Almighty,  and  commence  new  ones. 


MONASTIC  RULE  AND   DISCIPLINE    93 

who  have  a  hundred  and  one  scars  on  their  heads 
proclaim  that  they  have  tried  a  hundred  and  one 
spiritual  paths,  and  have  abandoned  everything 
connected  with  the  world  ;  those  who  wear  on  their 
foreheads  the  '  scar  of  resignation  '  signify  by  it 
that  they  cherish  in  their  hearts  no  desire  but 
Allah  ;  those  who  brand  their  ears,  that  they  have 
renounced  their  own  wills  and  Hve  only  to  fulfil 
that  of  Allah." 

Every  convent,  and  every  shrine  at  which  a 
Dervish  resides,  has  one  or  more  guest-chambers 
which  are  at  the  disposal  of  traveUing  Dervishes  of 
any  Order,  and  in  which,  especially  if  no  other  place 
of  refuge  is  at  hand,  other  Mussulmans  on  their 
pilgrimage  are  made  welcome.  It  is  the  special  duty 
of  one  of  the  brethren  to  attend  upon  the  guests, 
bring  them  food  from  the  common  kitchen,  and  per- 
form the  other  Httle  rites  of  Oriental  hospitaHty, 
such  as  making  their  coffee  and  preparing  their 
chibouks  for  smoking.  If  the  guest  be  a  Sheikh, 
he  is  received  in  the  apartment  of  the  Superior  of 
the  convent,  and  otherwise  treated  with  special 
consideration. 

The  funeral  of  a  Dervish  Sheikh  of  high  repute 
is  a  most  impressive  and  interesting  ceremony. 
Besides  his  own  congregation,  the  members  of  other 
Orders  in  the  neighbourhood,  together  with  a  large 
concourse  of  the  male  population,  assemble  at  the 
Tekkeh  to  follow  the  departed  to  his  last  resting- 
place.  After  the  usual  burial  service,  called  the 
mihit  namdz,  has  been  performed  in  the  monastery, 


94  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

four  or  more  of  the  disciples  of  the  deceased  Sheikh 
take  up  on  their  shoulders  the  rude  coffin,  which  is 
covered  with  shawls,  and  bears  at  the  head  his  turban. 
The  bereaved  fraternity  proceed  slowly  towards  the 
cemetery,  uttering  at  intervals  the  exclamation, 
"AUah!  Allah!"  Behind  follows  the  long  and 
irregular  procession,  winding  along  the  narrow 
streets.  In  the  Turkish  quarter  the  women  peep 
through  their  latticed  bhnds  with  reverent  curiosity, 
and  in  the  Christian  mahallahs  lean  out  of  their 
open  windows  to  watch  its  progress.  There  are 
Mevlevi  Dervishes  in  tall  hats  and  flowing  mantles  ; 
Bektashis  in  close  round  caps  and  black  robes ; 
orthodox  Imams  in  their  ample  white  turbans ;  and 
townspeople  of  every  creed  in  multicoloured  gar- 
ments, with  here  and  there  a  soldier  or  official  in 
tasselled  fez,  all  pacing  with  bowed  heads  and 
sedate  looks.  If  a  mosque  or  Tekkeh  is  passed 
on  the  route,  the  coffin  is  deposited  in  front  of  the 
gateway  and  a  service  chanted,  the  whole  assembly 
solemnly  joining  in  the  refrain  of  Amin  !  Amin  ! 
A  fresh  relay  of  bearers  then  raises  the  coffin,  and 
the  solemn  procession  moves  on. 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE   STAGES  OF  INITIATION 

"  And  he  who  hopes  to  scale  the  heights 
Without  enduring  pain, 
And  toil,  and  strife,  but  wastes  his  life 
In  idle  quest  and  vain." 

The  founder  of  one  of  the  earliest  Orders  of 
Dervishes,  Sheikh  Olwan,  laid  down  certain  rules  to 
be  observed  in  the  admission  of  new  members  into 
his  Brotherhood  ;  and  these  rules,  though  subse- 
quently elaborated  by  certain  of  the  Orders,  are 
still  substantially  the  same  in  their  leading  features, 
differing  only  in  the  severity  of  the  disciphne 
imposed  upon  a  candidate,  in  the  length  of  his 
period  of  probation,  and  in  certain  minor  details. 

As  a  general  rule,  a  neophyte  is  required  during  his 
novitiate  to  hve  in  complete  retirement  from  the 
world,  to  perform  the  menial  offices  of  the  Tekkeh, 
and  to  repeat  daily  101,  151,  or  301  times  one  of 
the  attributes  of  the  Deity.  These  are  ninety-seven 
in  number,  and  are  called  the  Isdmi  Ilahi,  or  "  Beau- 
tiful Names  of  Allah."  Seven  only  of  these  are  used 
by  a  Murid  ;  they  are  La  ilaha  il  Allah  ("  There  is 
no  God  but  Allah  ") ;  Ya  Allah  ("  O  God  ") ;  Ya 
Hoo  ("  O  Him  ") ;  Yd  Hakk  ("  O  Truth  ") ;  Yd 
Hay  ("  O  Ever  Living  ") ;  Yd  Kayyoum  ("  O  Self- 
existent  ") ;  and  Yd  Kahhar  ("  O  Almighty "). 
In  the  first  stage  of  his  probation  the  neophyte 
repeats  only  the  first  attribute,  and  his  advancement 

95 


96  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

through  the  seven  successive  stages  depends  upon 
the  proofs  he  is  able  to  give  of  the  reahty  of  his 
vocation  for  a  Dervish  hfe.  These  proofs  are  found 
in  the  frequency  and  vividness  of  the  dreams  and 
visions  vouchsafed  to  him,  which  he  is  bound  to 
communicate  to  his  Superior. 

Admission  into  the  Mevlevi  Order  is  only  obtained 
by  the  performance  of  an  uninterrupted  novitiate  of 
a  thousand  and  one  consecutive  days.  Should  the 
Murid  fail  in  a  single  day's  duties,  or  be  absent  from 
the  Tekkeh  for  one  whole  night,  his  probation  must 
be  re-commenced  ;  and,  whatever  his  worldly  rank, 
he  must  consider  himself  the  subordinate  of  every 
member  of  the  Tekkeh.  He  is  instructed  in  his 
duties  by  the  Ashjihashi,  or  Chief  of  the  Kitchen, 
spends  much  of  his  time  in  prayer  and  fasting,  and 
in  committing  to  memory  the  prayers  and  passages 
of  the  Koran  more  especially  used  by  his  Order. 
He  must  also  become  proficient  in  the  mystic  dance, 
and  take  part  in  the  pubhc  services  of  the  Brother- 
hood. The  novice,  having  passed  through  his 
period  of  probation  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Chief 
of  the  Kitchen,  that  functionary — who  acts  as  his 
sponsor — reports  him  to  the  Sheikh  as  worthy  of 
admission  to  the  initiatory  grade  of  the  Order,  and 
a  meeting  of  all  the  Brotherhood  is  convened  in  the 
Ismi  Jelih  Hufreh,  the  private  assembly  room  of 
the  Tekkeh.  When  all  are  assembled,  the  Murid  is 
led  by  the  Ashjihashi  to  the  Prior,  who  occupies 
the  seat  of  honour  in  the  angle  of  the  divan  ;  he 
kisses  the  extended  hand  of  his  Superior,  and  seats 


THE  STAGES  OF  INITIATION  97 

himself  on  the  floor  before  him.  His  sponsor  then 
places  his  right  hand  on  the  neck,  and  his  left  on 
the  forehead  of  the  neophyte,  the  Sheikh  takes  off 
the  kulah  which,  with  the  rest  of  the  Mevlevi  costume 
he  has  worn  during  his  novitiate,  and  proceeds  to 
chant  a  Persian  distich  composed  by  the  founder 
of  the  Order.  He  then  delivers  an  exhortation  to 
the  young  disciple,  at  the  termination  of  which  he 
replaces  the  kulah  on  his  head.  The  Murid  and  his 
sponsor  now  place  themselves  in  the  middle  of  the 
room,  where  they  assume  a  posture  of  profound 
humihty,  standing  with  folded  arms,  crossed  toes, 
and  bowed  heads.  The  Ashjihashi  is  then  addressed 
as  follows  by  the  Sheikh  : — 

"  May  the  services  of  the  Murid,  thy  brother,  be 
agreeable  to  the  Throne  of  the  Eternal,  and  in  the 
eyes  of  our  Pir  ;  may  His  satisfaction,  His  felicity, 
and  His  glory  grow  in  the  nest  of  the  humble,  in  the 
cell  of  the  poor.  Let  us  exclaim  Hoo  (Him)  in 
honour  of  our  Mevlana.^^  ^  The  Murid  and  his 
sponsor  answer  "  Hoo  !  "  and  the  former  then  kisses 
the  hand  of  the  Sheikh,  who  addresses  to  him  some 
paternal  remarks  on  his  new  position,  and  concludes 
by  asking  all  the  members  of  the  congregation  to 
embrace  and  welcome  their  new  brother. 

A  novice  of  the  Bektashi  Order  is  also  required 
to  perform  a  novitiate  of  a  thousand  and  one  days, 
during  which  he  frequents  the  services  of  the 
Tekkeh.  But  the  formalities  observed  by  this  Order 
in  the  reception  of  candidates  differ  from  those  of 

1  The  founder  of  the  Order,  Mevlana  Jelalu-'d-Din. 


98  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

the  Mevlevi  Brethren,  and  are  even  more  elaborate. 
A  candidate  is  recommended  to  the  Sheikh  by  two 
members  of  the  community  who  are  called  his  "  Inter- 
preters." 1  He  must  also  have  already  given  during 
his  novitiate  proofs  of  spiritual  knowledge  and 
acquirements,  and  have  faithfully  kept  certain 
pretended  secrets  of  the  Order  imparted  to  him  as 
tests  of  his  powers  of  reticence.  His  reception  into 
the  Brotherhood  is  also  determined  by  the  revela- 
tions concerning  him  received,  in  dreams  or  visions, 
by  the  Sheikh  from  the  Pir  or  from  Ali.  What 
is  thus  revealed  is  not  communicated  to  the 
neophyte. 

On  the  evening  appointed  for  the  ceremony  of 
initiation — for  the  services  of  the  Bektashi  Order 
are  always  held  by  night — the  neophyte  takes  with 
him  to  the  convent  a  sheep  and  a  small  sum  of 
money.  The  sheep  is  sacrificed  on  the  threshold  of 
the  Tekkeh,  part  of  its  wool  is  twisted  into  a  rope, 
the  rest  being  preserved  to  be  made  later  on  into  a 
girdle  for  his  use.  If  the  candidate  desires  to  take 
the  vow  of  cehbacy,  he  is  stripped  naked  ;  but  if 
he  proposes,  as  in  the  generahty  of  cases,  to  take 
only  the  ordinary,  or  secular  vow  of  this  wide- 
spread and  numerous  Order,  his  breast  only  is 
bared.  With  the  rope  round  his  neck  he  is  led  by 
his  "  Interpreters,"  one  of  whom  carries  the  symbol 
termed  the  tebber,  a  kind  of  battle-axe,  into  the  hall 
of  the  Tekkeh.     Here  he  stands  with  his  arms  folded 

1  Terjumdn.  This  term  also  signifies  the  secret  pass- 
word or  phrase  of  the  Bektashi  Order. 


MEVLEVI  NEOPHYTE  LEARNING  THE  DEVR 


THE  STAGES  OF   INITIATION  99 

across  his  breast,  his  hands  on  his  shoulders,  his 
toes  crossed,  and  his  body  incHned  towards  the 
Sheikh  —  a  posture  signifying  abject  humihty 
and  designated  buyun  kesmek.  The  Prior  and 
the  Twelve  Elders  are  seated  around  the  hall  on 
their  sheepskins,  a  lighted  candle  being  placed 
in  front  of  each.  One  of  the  **  Interpreters " 
announces  to  the  Prior  that  he  has  brought  to  him 
a  slave,  and  requests  his  acceptance  of  the  gift. 
He  acquiesces,  and  the  neophyte,  addressing  him, 
repeats  this  prayer  : — 

"  I  have  erred  ;  pardon  my  fault,  O  Shah  !  For 
the  sake  of  the  Accepted  One  (Ah)  of  the  Exalted 
Place  ;  for  the  sake  of  the  Martyr  (Hussein).  I  have 
done  wrong  to  myself,  and  to  our  Lord,  and  I  implore 
pardon  of  Him." 

His  "  fault  "  is  supposed  to  consist  in  having  so 
long  delayed  to  join  the  Order.  The  Sheikh  then 
recites  a  sort  of  Litany,  to  which  the  Murid  makes 
the  responses. 

"  In  the  Name  of  Allah,  the  Merciful  and  the 
Clement : — 

"  I  beseech  Allah's  forgiveness  (thrice  repeated) ; 
I  have  come  to  implore  pardon  ;  I  have  come  in 
search  of  the  Truth  ;  I  ask  it  for  the  sake-  of  the 
Just.  Truth  is  the  path  which  leads  to  Allah,  the 
All  True,  whom  I  know.  What  you  term  Evil,  I 
also  know  to  be  Evil,  and  I  will  avoid  taking  with 
my  hands  what  is  another's.  .  .  .  Repent  of  your 
sins  unto  Allah,  a  repentance  that  knows  not 
return  unto  sin." 


100  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

Then  follows  an  exhortation  by  the  Superior  : — 

"  Eat  nothing  forbidden  ;  speak  no  falsehood  ; 
quarrel  with  none  ;  be  kind  to  your  inferiors  ;  over- 
look the  faults  of  others,  and  conceal  them.  If  you 
cannot  do  this  with  your  hand,  do  it  with  your 
skirts,  your  tongue,  and  your  heart." 

The  novice  then  kisses  the  hand  of  the  Sheikh,  who 
continues : — 

"  If  thou  now  accept  me  as  thy  father,  I  accept 
thee  as  my  son.  Be  hereafter  the  pledge  of  Allah 
breathed  in  thy  right  ear." 

He  then  repeats  after  his  Superior  the  words  : 
"  Mohammed  is  my  leader,  and  Ah  is  my  guide." 
The  Sheikh  asks,  "  Dost  thou  accept  me  as  thy  Guide 
(meaning  as  the  representative  of  Ah)  ?  "  to  which 
he  responds,  "  I  accept  thee  as  my  Guide  "  ;  and 
the   Sheikh    adds,    '*  Then    I    accept  thee   as    my 


son." 


The  postulant  is  now  led  by  his  "  Interpreters 
to  the  Sheikh,  before  whom  he  first  bows  low  and 
then  prostrates  himself,  touching  the  floor  with  his 
forehead.  Kneehng  opposite  to  him  so  closely  that 
their  knees  touch,  the  Superior  takes  the  postulant's 
right  hand  in  his,  and  the  thumbs  are  raised  to 
represent  the  Arabic  letter  Alif.  The  latter  places 
his  ear  to  the  mouth  of  the  Sheikh  who  imparts  to 
him  in  a  whisper  the  Ikrdndmeh,  or  secret  Vows  of 
the  Order.  As  the  tenets  of  the  Bektashis  are 
beheved  by  many  to  be  purely  pantheistic,  it  is 
asserted  that  the  words  whispered  by  the  Sheikh  to 
the  Murid  convey  a  doctrine  to  which  he  must 


THE  STAGES  OF   INITIATION         101 

assent  on  pain  of  death,  and  admit  the  unity  of 
God  and  Nature.  But  this  assertion  is  positively 
denied  by  others  ;  and  it  would,  indeed,  be  difficult 
to  prove  it,  as  the  secrets  of  the  Order  are  never 
committed  to  writing,  and  are  known  only  to  its 
members,  who,  it  is  believed,  are  deterred  by 
the  most  frightful  penalties  from  divulging 
them. 

When  the  disciple  is  presented  with  the  girdle 
and  the  stone  worn  in  it,  the  Prior,  as  he  binds  it 
round  his  waist  says  to  him  :  "I  now  bind  up  thy 
waist  in  the  path  of  Allah — O  Holy  Name,  possessed 
of  all  knowledge  !  Whoever  knows  this  Name  will 
become  the  successor  of  his  Sheikh  (Naib).^^  Certain 
principles  of  the  Order  are  then  imparted  to  the 
novice,  who  is  also  instructed  in  various  mystic 
tenets  concerning  the  universe  and  the  Koran.  The 
Sheikh  then  sums  up  by  saying,  "  There  is  but  one 
Light,  and  the  Truth  is  (as)  the  Moon.  He  who  has 
found  the  science  of  his  own  body  (called  the  Hum 
i  Vurgood,  his  spiritual  counterpart^)  knows  his 
Lord  ;  for  the  holy  Prophet  has  said,  *  To  know 
thyself  is  to  know  thy  Lord.'  In  this  is  comprised 
a  knowledge  of  thine  own  secret,  and  that  of  thy 
Creator." 

When  a  Bektashi  takes  the  vow  of  celibacy,  he 
is  asked  by  the  Sheikh  whether,  if  he  break  it,  he  is 
willing  to  come  under  the  sword  of  Ali,  to  which 
he  replies  in  the  affirmative.  The  inner  signification 
of  this  phrase  is  said  to  contain  one  of  the  secret 

1  See  above,  p.  36. 

8— (21 19) 


102  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

vows  of  the  Order.  On  putting  on  for  the  first 
time  the  sash  or  Alif-lam,'^  he  says,  "  I  abandon  all 
matrimony,  and  bind  myself  by  this  sash  so  to  do." 
The  Murid  then  recites  chapter  cxii  of  the  Koran  ; 
after  which  the  Sheikh  declares  to  him  that  "  Allah 
doth  not  engender  or  bring  forth,  and  so  may  men 
tell  of  thee,  and  no  one  is  equal  to  Him." 

Twelve  being  the  Bektashi  mystical  number,  a 
member  having  broken  a  vow,  incurs  twelve  punish- 
ments. One  of  their  secret  signs  is  said  to  consist 
of  the  words  Tehran  and  Toolan — "  far  "  and  "  near  " 
— signifj/ing  "  near  in  affection  and  far  in  conceit." 

The  ceremonies  of  affihation  of  the  other  Orders 
bear  a  great  resemblance  to  the  foregoing,  with  the 
exception  of  those  of  the  Kddiri,  the  RufaH,  the 
Sd^di. 

A  novice  of  the  RufaH  receives  from  the  Sheikh 
a  small  cup  of  water  from  the  Zemzem — the  Sacred 
Well  of  Mekka — which,  after  reciting  a  prayer  over, 
he  drinks. 

At  the  initiation  of  a  Sddi  Dervish,  a  number 
of  dates  are  placed  before  the  Superior.  He  selects 
one,  extracts  the  stone,  breathes  upon  the  fruit  and 
puts  it  into  the  mouth  of  the  neophyte  who  is  seated 
on  the  floor  before  him.  Two  members  of  the  Order 
seat  themselves  to  the  right  and  left  of  him,  and 
proceed  to  sway  him  from  side  to  side,  reciting  at 
the  same  time:  "There  is  no  God  but  Allah,"  the 
Sheikh  doing  the  same,  until  he  has  swallowed  the 
date.     All  then  rise,  and  the  Murid,  after  kissing 

1  The  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Arabic  alphabet. 


THE  STAGES  OF   INITIATION         103 

the  hand  of  the  superior,  is  acknowledged  as  a 
brother  by  the  rest  of  the  congregation. 

A  person  wishing  to  join  the  Kddiri  Order  inti- 
mates his  desire  to  one  of  its  members.  The  Dervish 
enjoins  him  to  frequent  the  Tekkeh  and  its  services, 
and  also  to  wait  upon  the  brethren  and  their  guests. 
These  menial  duties  are  required  from  every  neo- 
phyte, whatever  his  worldly  rank  may  be .  The  period 
of  probation  lasts  for  many  months,  during  which 
time  the  Murid  becomes  greatly  attached  to  his 
Superior.  When  he  has  been  deemed  worthy  to  enter 
the  ranks  of  the  Dervishes,  he  is  directed  to  procure 
a  cap  of  plain  white  felt,  which  is  carried 
by  his  sponsor  to  the  Sheikh.  A  gul,  or  piece  of 
cloth  stamped  into  the  shape  of  a  rose  of  eighteen 
petals,  and  having  in  the  centre  the  "  Solomon's 
Seal  " — two  interlaced  triangles — is  then  attached 
to  it.  When  the  brethren  assemble  in  the  Tekkeh 
for  the  performance  of  the  Zikr,  or  invocation  of 
Allah,  the  Sheikh  takes  his  place  on  his  sheepskin 
and  the  neophyte,  led  by  his  sponsor,  kneels  before 
him  and  kisses  his  hand.  The  Sheikh  takes  off  the 
novice's  ordinary  cap,  and  replaces  it  by  that 
bearing  the  "  Rose,"  which  he  has  carried  in  his 
bosom,  and  says,  three  times,  "  Allahu  Ekber " 
(God  is  Great). 

A  disciple  does  not,  however,  even  after  this 
formal  reception  into  it,  become  at  once  a  full 
member  of  the  Order.  This  grade  is  only  reached 
after,  it  may  be,  years  of  further  probation,  and  its 
attainment  depends  upon  the  proofs  he  is  able  to 


104  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

give  of  his  progress  in  spirituality.  His  final 
admission  to  full  brotherhood  is  usually  determined 
by  a  revelation  from  the  Pir,  or  from  Ah,  received 
simultaneously  by  himself  and  his  Sheikh.  While 
passing  through  these  intermediate  stages,  the 
aspirant  is  under  the  guidance  of  the  Superior  or  of 
an  initiate  who  has  himself  reached  the  highest 
degree.  During  the  first  stage,  which  is  termed 
Sheridt,  or  "  the  Law,"  the  disciple  observes  all  the 
usual  rites  of  Moslem  worship,  obeys  all  the  com- 
mands and  precepts  of  the  Koran  like  any  other 
True  Behever,  and  is  treated  by  the  Brethren  of 
the  community  as  an  uninitiated  outsider.  He  is 
taught  at  the  same  time  to  concentrate  his  thoughts 
so  completely  on  his  "  Guide  "  as  to  become  mentally 
absorbed  in  him  as  a  spiritual  link  with  the  supreme 
object  of  all  devotion.  This  Guide  must  be  the 
neophyte's  shield  against  all  worldly  thoughts  and 
desires  ;  his  spirit  must  aid  him  in  all  his  efforts, 
accompany  him  wherever  he  may  be,  and  be  ever 
present  to  his  mental  vision.  Such  a  frame  of  mind 
is  termed  "  annihilation  into  the  Murshid,^^  and 
the  Guide  discovers,  by  means  of  his  own  visions, 
the  degree  of  spirituality  to  which  his  disciple  has 
attained,  and  to  what  extent  his  soul  has  become 
absorbed  into  his  own. 

The  Murid  now  enters  upon  what,  in  Dervish 
phraseology,  is  called  "  the  Path."  During  this 
period,  which  forms  in  reality  the  transition  from 
outward  to  hidden  things,  the  disciple  is  familiar- 
ised with  those  philosophical  writings  of  the  great 


THE  STAGES  OF  INITIATION         105 

Sufi  masters  which  form  the  chief  subject  of  the 
lectures  and  studies  of  the  Order.  He  is  taught  to 
substitute  spiritual  for  ritual  worship,  and  led  by 
degrees  to  abandon  the  dogmas  and  formulas  of 
Islam  as  necessary  only  for  the  unenlightened 
masses.  This  method  is,  however,  pursued  with 
great  tact  and  caution,  for  a  disciple  is  not  released 
from  the  usual  observances  of  religion  until  he  has 
given  proof  of  sincere  piety,  virtue,  exceptional 
spirituality,  and  extreme  asceticism  ;  and  a  Dervish 
at  this  stage  of  his  novitiate  passes  most  of  his  time 
in  solitary  contemplation,  endeavouring  to  detach 
his  mind  from  all  visible  objects  in  order  to  attain 
the  desired  union  with  the  Deity.  His  Guide,  mean- 
while, imparts  to  him  his  own  mystical  philosophy 
as  he  finds  him  capable  of  receiving  it.  If  the 
disciple's  religious  feelings  appear  to  be  shocked  by 
any  maxim  to  which  he  has  given  utterance,  the 
already  mentioned  Jesuitical  expedient  known  as  the 
Ketman  supplies  the  Master  with  a  double  sense  which 
enables  him  at  once  to  convince  his  disciple  of  the 
groundlessness  of  his  objections.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
the  Murshid  finds  his  pupil's  theological  digestion 
robust,  his  advance  on  the  path  will  be  correspond- 
ingly rapid.  He  is  now  supposed  to  come  under  the 
spiritual  influence  of  the  Pir,  or  founder  of  the  Order, 
in  whom  he  in  turn  becomes  mentally  absorbed  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  be  virtually  one  with  him, 
acquiring  his  attributes  and  power  of  performing 
supernatural  acts. 

The  next  stage  of  the  mystic  life  is  that  termed 


106  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

by  the  Dervishes  "  Spiritual  Knowledge,"  and  the 
disciple  who  believes  himself,  and  is  beheved  by  his 
Sheikh  to  have  attained  to  such  knowledge  or,  in 
other  words,  to  have  become  inspired,  is  held  to  be 
on  an  equahty  with  the  Angels.  He  now  enters 
into  spiritual  communion  with  the  Prophet  himself, 
into  whose  soul  his  own  has  become  absorbed. 

The  fourth  degree  is  usually  attained  during  the 
forty  days  of  fasting  and  seclusion,  observed  by 
every  Dervish  during  his  novitiate.  In  his  ecstatic 
state  he  beheves  himself  to  have  become  a  part  of 
the  Divinity,  and  sees  Him  in  all  things.  The 
Sheikh,  after  witnessing  this  remarkable  proof  of 
the  success  of  his  teachings,  gently  awakens  the 
disciple  from  his  ecstasy,  and  having  restored  him 
to  his  normal  condition,  bestows  upon  him  the  rank 
of  khalifeh  ("  successor  ").  The  mystic  now  resumes 
his  outward  observance  of  the  rites  of  Islam,  and 
prepares  for  his  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Cities. 

Not  every  Dervish,  however,  attains  even  to  the 
third  grade  ;  and  the  highest  is  attained  only  by 
the  few.  Those  less  spiritually  gifted,  or  less 
mystically  minded,  still  continue  to  recognise  the 
personal  and  anthropomorphic  Allah  of  the  Koran, 
and  look  forward  at  death  only  to  a  closer  intimacy 
with  Him  than  that  which  will  be  enjoyed  by  those 
who  have  not  entered  on  *'  the  Path." 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE     COSTUMES,     MUSICAL     INSTRUMENTS,     AND 
SYMBOLIC  OBJECTS   OF  THE   DERVISHES 

" flutes 

In  Dervish  hands  at  mystic  dance, 

Whose  hopes  or  fears,  loves,  joys,  or  cares, 

Are  whispered  in  ecstatic  trance." 

IzzET  MoLLA,  The  Reedpen's  Reply. 

"  Stone  about  its  waist  begirdled,    and  with  iron 
staff  in  hand, 
TrembUngly  the  compass-needle  seeketh  for  the 
Loved  One's  Land." 

Jam!. 

The  Dervishes  of  the  various  Orders  may  be  easily 
distinguished  from  their  fellow-men,  and  also, 
generally,  from  each  other,  by  their  costumes,  and, 
more  particularly,  by  the  shape  of  their  head- 
dresses ;  and  to  the  latter,  as  well  as  to  every  other 
article  of  their  clothing,  some  symbolic  meaning, 
and,  in  many  cases,  some  legend  is  attached. 

The  out-of-door  costume  of  the  Mevlevi  Order  is 
said  to  have  been  adopted  by  their  talented  founder 
Mevlana  (Our  Lord)  Jelalii-'d-Din,  as  a  sign  of 
mourning  for  his  friend  and  spiritual  master, 
Shemsii-'d-Din  ("  Sun  of  the  Faith  ").  It  consists 
of  a  tall  hat  called  a  kulah,  of  undyed  camel's  hair 
felt,  in  shape  like  an  inverted  plantpot.  Their 
Sheikhs,  who  all  claim  descent  from  the  family  of 
the  Prophet,  are,  on  this  account,  entitled  to  wear 
round   their   kulah   a   green    turban.     The   legend 

107 


108  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

attached  to  this  head-dress  says  that  the  soul  of 
Mohammed  had  a  previous  existence  in  the  Alemi 
Ervah,  or  Spirit  World,  where  Allah  placed  it  in  a 
vase  of  hght  of  that  shape.  The  lay  members  of 
the  Order,  who  do  not  wear  the  Dervish  dress  except 
when  taking  part  in  its  ceremonies,  often,  when  in 
private,  lay  aside  their  ordinary  fez,  or  turban,  and 
don  the  kulah,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  happy  influence 
it  is  believed  to  exert  on  the  wearer.  When  the 
son  of  Othman  I,  Solyman  Pasha,  asked  the  blessing 
of  the  Mevlevi  Grand  Master  at  Konieh  on  the 
expedition  he  was  undertaking  against  the  Byzantine 
Greeks,  that  dignitary  placed  on  his  head  a  kulah, 
and  prophesied  that  "  victory  should  go  with  him." 
The  prince  showed  his  reverence  for  the  gift  by 
having  it  covered  with  silver.  So  high  was  the 
favour  which  this  Order  enjoyed  under  the  early 
Sultans,  that  their  kulah  became  the  state  head- 
dress at  the  Ottoman  Court.  It  was  worn,  orna- 
mented with  gold  embroidery,  by  successive  "  Com- 
manders of  the  Faithful,"  and  also,  variously  deco- 
rated, by  civil  and  miUtary  dignitaries  until  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  when  "  the 
Reforming  Sultan,"  Mahmoud  II,  relegated  its  use 
to  the  officers  of  the  Janissary  Corps. 

The  khirkha  of  the  Mevlevi  Order  is  a  long,  loose, 
wide-sleeved  robe  of  fawn-coloured  cloth  for  ordinary 
wear,  and  of  black  stuff  when  used  to  cover  the 
costume  in  which  they  dance.  Like  the  mantles 
of  the  Dervishes  generally,  it  is  more  or  less  a  copy 
of  that  beUeved  to  have  been  worn  by  the  Prophet. 


THE  COSTUMES,   ETC.  109 

The  tennuri,  or  skirt,  is  worn  only  by  Mevlevi 
Dervishes  when  performing  their  rehgious  exercises. 
It  may  be  red,  yellow,  or  brown  ;  is  made  very  wide 
and  without  gores,  and  reaches  to  the  feet.  The 
rapid  motion  of  the  wearers  when  spinning  round 
in  their  mystic  dance  extends  these  skirts  to  their 
full  width,  exposing  to  view  the  drawers  of  white 
linen  worn  beneath.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is 
clad  in  a  short  jacket  of  coloured  material  with 
tight-fitting  sleeves,  and  round  the  waist  is  bound 
the  taybend,  a  girdle  containing  in  its  folds  the 
"  Stone  of  Contentment."  This  is  commemorative 
of  the  stones  formerly  carried  by  begging  Dervishes, 
who  bound  them  close  to  their  stomachs  in  order  to 
suppress  the  pangs  of  hunger.  Three  were  usually 
carried,  though  their  wearers  confidently  believed 
that  Allah  would  not  fail  to  send  relief  before  the 
necessity  arose  for  using  the  full  number. 

The  use  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music  by  this 
Order  is  said  to  have  been  adopted  by  its  founder 
in  order  to  rouse  the  lethargic  natures  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Riim  to  a  devotional  love  of  Allah  through 
the  allurement  of  sweet  sounds  addressed  to  their 
outward  senses.  The  orchestra  of  their  chief  Tekkeh 
at  Konieh  is  composed  of  six  different  instruments, 
among  which  are  the  reedfiute  and  zither,  the 
rebeck,  a  kind  of  violoncello,  drums,  and  tambourines. 
In  the  generality  of  their  Tekkehs,  however,  only 
zithers,  reedflutes,  and  small  hemispherical  drums 
are  used.  The  music  of  these  flutes  appears  to  have 
a   singularly    entrancing   effect    on   the    Dervishes 


110  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

whose  exercises  it  accompanies.  They  are  lulled  and 
soothed  by  it  to  a  forgetfulness  of  the  visible  world 
as  if  they  indeed  heard  in  its  strains  the  mystic 
voices  of  the  spiritual  world.  In  the  "  Song  of 
the  Reed-flute  "  above  quoted,  ^  the  Dervish  poet 
symbohses  under  the  figure  of  a  Lover  sighing  for 
his  absent  Mistress,  the  Soul  of  Man  languishing  for 
reunion  with  the  Divine  Love.  In  the  Mesnevi  of 
Jelalu-'d-Dm  is  given  the  following  charmingly 
poetical  account  of  the  origin  of  the  reed-flute's 
mystic  music  which  recalls  the  beautiful  myth  of 
Orpheus  and  his  lute. 

"  One  day  the  Prophet  privately  imparted  to  Ali 
the  Secrets  and  Mysteries  of  the  '  Brethren  of  Sin- 
cerity ' — evidently  the  original  Brotherhood — with 
the  injunction  not  to  reveal  them  to  anyone.  For 
forty  days  Ali  kept  these  secrets  locked  in  his 
breast,  but  feeling  no  longer  able  to  contain  them, 
he  fled  into  the  desert.  Coming  upon  a  well,  he 
stooped  as  far  as  possible  down  its  mouth,  and  to 
the  earth  and  water  divulged,  one  by  one,  these 
mysteries.  Some  days  afterwards  a  shepherd  youth, 
whose  heart  had  been  miraculously  enhghtened, 
perceived  a  single  reed  growing  up  out  of  the  well. 
He  cut  it  down,  drilled  holes  in  it,  and,  while  pas- 
turing his  sheep  in  the  neighbourhood,  breathed 
through  the  flute  he  had  made  melodies  hke  those 
performed  by  the  Dervish  Lovers  of  Allah.  Soon 
the  various  Arab  tribes  heard  of  the  youth's  wonder- 
ful flute-playing,  and  came  to  listen  to  it,  accompanied 

1  See  p.  52. 


THE  COSTUMES,   ETC.  Ill 

by  their  sheep  and  camels,  which  forgot  to  graze 
while  hearkening.  The  nomad  shepherds  wept  for 
joy  and  delight,  and  broke  forth  into  transports  and 
ecstasies.  The  fame  of  this  music  at  length  reached 
the  Prophet,  who  sent  for  the  youthful  musician. 
When  he  began  to  play  before  them,  all  the  holy 
disciples  of  Allah's  Messenger  were  moved  to  tears  ; 
they  burst  forth  into  shouts  and  exclamations  of 
pure  bliss,  and  lost  all  earthly  consciousness.  When 
he  had  ceased,  the  Prophet  declared  that  the  notes 
of  the  shepherd's  pipe  were  the  interpretation  of 
the  Holy  Mysteries  which  he  had  confided  to  the 
keeping  of  Ali. 

"  Thus  it  is,"  adds  the  author,  "  that,  until  a  man 
acquires  the  sincere  devotion  of  the  linnet-voiced 
reedflute,  he  cannot  hear  in  its  dulcet  tones  the 
Mysteries  of  the  Brethren  of  Sincerity,  nor  reahse 
the  dehghts  thereof ;  for  faith  is  altogether  a 
yearning  of  the  heart  and  a  gratification  of  the 
spiritual  sense. 

"The  pangs  my  love  for  thee  excites,  can  I  to  mortal  breathe  ? 
Ah  no  !    Like  All's,  some  pure  fount  my  sighs,  too,  must 

receive. 
Perchance  some  reeds  may  thence  upspring  its  brink  to 

overgrow, 
And  plaintive  flutes  those  reeds  become  to  murmur  forth 

my  woe." 

The  cap,  mantle,  and  girdle  of  the  BektSshi  Order 
are  called  by  their  wearers  "  The  Three  Principles," 
or  "  Points,"  and  have  the  following  legendary 
origin.  The  Angel  Gabriel  on  the  occasion  of  one 
of  his  visits  to  the  Prophet,  cut  his  hair,  shaved  his 


112  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

beard,  and  then  invested  him  with  a  cap,  mantle, 
and  girdle.  This  act  of  service  the  Angel  had  pre- 
viously performed  only  for  Adam  and  Abraham. 
Mohammed  then  proceeded  to  do  for  Ali  what 
Gabriel  had  done  for  him,  and  Ah  in  his  turn 
performed  this  oihce  for  the  Twelve  Imams. 

Much  symboUc  significance  is  also  attached  to 
the  Bektashi  cap.  It  is  called  a  Taj,  or  *'  crown," 
and  is  of  white  felt,  shaped  like  a  dome,  and  divided 
into  four  parts  by  grooves,  called  "  Doors,"  which 
allude  to  the  four  great  stages  of  the  spiritual  life. 
These  "  Doors "  are  subdivided  by  other  three 
grooves  into  twelve  parts,  in  remembrance  of  the 
twelve  Imams,  and  signify  also  the  abandonment  of 
twelve  sins.  The  green  or  black  turban  worn  round 
the  cap  is  called  the  "  parable  "  (Istlva).  It  signifies 
the  abandonment  of  the  world  for  the  pursuit  of 
high  and  holy  things.  As  a  general  rule,  the  Sheikhs 
alone  wear  turbans.  They,  however,  frequently 
appoint  deputies  who,  as  they  bear  the  same 
honorary  title,  are  also  entitled  to  wear  this 
distinctive  head-dress.  The  cap  has,  besides, 
thirteen  mystical  significations  attached  to  its 
several  parts,  among  which  are  its  border,  circum- 
ference, "  key,"  or  apex,  and  decoration.  This  cap 
is,  spiritually  speaking,  of  two  kinds  :  the  "  Crown 
of  the  Ignorant  "  (Taj  i  Jahil),  the  wearers  of  which 
are  often  to  be  seen  in  the  bazaars  and  public 
streets  ;  and  the  "  Crown  of  the  Perfect  "  {Taj  i 
Kiamil),  worn  by  those  who  shun,  rather  than  seek, 
intercourse  with  the  world. 


THE  COSTUMES,   ETC.  113 

There  are  also  other  forms  of  the  Bektashi  Ta;, 
for,  according  to  their  saying  :  "As  all  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  grew  out  of  the  first  one,  Alif,  so 
the  caps  of  the  various  Orders  were  derived  from 
the  Alifer,  or  original  cap."  It  is  sometimes  also 
called  "  the  Founder "  (Pir),  and  was  in  earher 
times  inscribed  with  the  text :  "  All  things  will 
perish,  save  His  face,  and  to  Him  will  all  things 
return."  On  putting  it  on,  the  Dervish  recites  this 
invocation  : — 

"  Sign  of  the  glorious  [name  of  the  Pit  of  his 
Order] ;  of  Kamber,  [the  groom  of  Ah] ;  of  those 
who  are  dead  ;  of  the  great  family  of  the  Imam 
Riza  ;  ^  permit  me  to  put  on  this  Crown,  for  I  fully 
believe  in  its  virtues.     Great  is  Allah." 

The  mantle  of  the  Bektashi  Order,  though  similar 
in  shape,  differs  from  that  of  the  Mevlevi  Dervishes 
in  being  decorated  with  twelve  lines,  or  stripes, 
symbohcal,  hke  the  grooves  in  their  "  Crowns,"  of 
the  Twelve  Imams,  and  is  edged  with  green.  Among 
its  mystical  attributes  are  the  following,  with  their 
meanings  as  given  by  the  fourth  Imam,  Jafer-es-Sadik. 

Its  "  True  Faith  "  =  to  use  it  as  a  covering  for 
the  faults  and  folhes  of  others. 

Its  Kihleh  (point  to  which  the  attention  is  turned, 
or  Mekka)  =  the  Pir. 

Its  "  Ablution  "  =  the  cleansing  from  sin. 

Its  "  Obhgation  "  =  the  forsaking  of  cupidity. 

Its  "  Duty  "  =  Contentment. 

Its  "  Soul  "  =  the  keeping  of  vows. 

*  The  eighth  Imam. 


114  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

The  different  parts  of  this  garment  have  also  their 
several  significations.  Its  border  is  symbolical  of 
the  condition  of  a  Dervish  ;  its  collar,  of  submission  ; 
its  exterior  signifies  "  spiritual  light,"  and  its  interior 
"  secrecy."  The  collar  and  edges  are  embroidered 
with  Arabic  words  signifying  "  0  Friend !  "  "  O 
Healer  !  "  "  O  Great  One !  "  etc. 

The  short  tight-sleeved  vest  worn  under  the  mantle 
is  also  decorated  with  twelve  stripes  of  a  colour 
different  from  the  material,  likewise  symbolising  the 
twelve  Imams. 

The  girdle  worn  folded  round  the  waist  under  the 
mantle  is  made  from  the  wool  of  the  sheep  sacrificed 
at  the  initiation  of  its  owner,  and  is  characterised 
by     several     symbohcal     names.     The     Bektashi 
Dervishes  relate  that  its  prototype  was  worn  by 
Adam,  and  subsequently  by  a  succession  of  sixteen 
Prophets,  beginning  with  Seth,  and  including  Elias, 
Jesus,    and    Mohammed.     Their   legend    also    says 
that  the  one  presented  to  the  Prophet  by  the  Angel 
Gabriel  bore  the  inscription  :   "  There  is  no  God  but 
Allah,  Mohammed  is  His  Prophet,  and  Ali  is  His 
Friend."    The  kamherieh  is  the  rope  placed  round  the 
neck  of  the  Dervish  at  his  initiation,  and  subsequently 
worn  by  him  round  his  waist.     Three  knots  are  tied 
in  it,  called  respectively  the  hand-tie,  the  tongue-tie, 
and  the  rein-tie,  to  remind  the  wearer  of  his  vows 
of  truth,  honesty,  and  chastity.     It  is  also  com- 
memorative of  the  cord  with  which  Kamber,  the 
groom  of  the  Khalif  Ali,  was  in  the  habit  of  tethering 
his    master's     horse,    "  Diildiil,"    and    serves    to 


THE  COSTUMES,   ETC.  115 

support  a  septagonal  crystal,  or  stone,  called  the 
Palenky  symbolising  "  the  seven  heavens  and  seven 
earths,  seven  seas  and  seven  planets,"  which, 
according  to  the  Koran,  obey  Allah's  command  and 
worship  him  by  revolving  round  His  holy  seat. 
Another  stone,  called  the  "  Stone  of  Submission  " 
(teshem  task)  is  worn  suspended  round  the  neck, 
and  attached  to  it  is  the  following  curious 
legend  : — 

"  Moses,  the  Servant  of  God,  was  in  the  habit  of 
bathing  in  the  Nile  at  a  spot  remote  from  that  used 
by  his  fellows  for  that  purpose,  in  order  that  they 
might  not  observe  the  radiance  that  emanated  from 
his  body.  The  evil-minded  took  advantage  of  this 
custom  of  the  Seer  to  circulate  a  report  that  he  was 
leprous,  or  afflicted  with  elephantiasis,  and  for  that 
reason  was  ashamed  to  wash  with  them.  '  But 
Allah  cleared  him  from  the  scandal  which  they  had 
spoken  concerning  him.'^  One  day  when  Moses 
was  bathing,  he  laid  his  clothes  on  a  stone  by  the 
riverside.  The  stone  immediately  set  off  at  a 
rapid  pace  towards  Misr  (Cairo),  followed  by  the 
Seer,  who,  eager  in  the  chase  after  his  garments, 
found  himself  amid  the  Israehtes  before  he  was 
aware.  When  he  came  up  with  the  stone,  in  his 
wrath  he  perforated  it  with  his  stick  in  twelve 
places.  The  stone  then  spake  and  said,  *  O  Moses, 
I  walked  by  the  command  of  the  Lord,  and  was  the 
cause  that  thy  purity  has  been  witnessed  by  the 
people.'    Moses,  being  sorry  for  his  unjust  behaviour, 

1  Koran,  Chap,  xxxiii.. 


116  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

said,  '  I  have  perforated  thee  in  twelve  places, 
for  which  I  ask  thy  forgiveness — A  Dervish  is 
forgiven  by  Dervishes.'  ^  '  Well,  Moses,'  rephed  the 
stone,  *  I  am  satisfied  with  thy  excuses  ;  but  now 
take  a  cord,  and  pass  it  through  one  of  the  holes, 
and  keep  me  till  thou  requires t  a  collar  of  penitence.' 
Moses  did  as  the  stone  commanded,  and  suspended 
it  round  his  neck."  "  And  this,"  says  the  Dervish 
Evhya,  "  is  the  origin  of  the  stones  generally  worn  by 
Dervishes,  and  also  of  that  put  on  by  penitents, 
both  of  which  are  called  sigil  tashi.^'  According  to 
the  same  author,  this  is  the  stone  that  spake  to 
Moses  at  the  rock  of  Horeb  :  "  O  Moses,  put  me  on 
the  ground,  and  give  me  twelve  blows,"  upon  which 
twelve  streams  gushed  out  of  the  holes. 

Another  legend  says  that  the  "  Stone  of  Submis- 
sion "  had  its  origin  with  Abii  Bekr,  who,  having 
one  day  used  language  which  gave  offence  to  the 
Prophet,  repented  of  his  fault,  and,  to  guard  against 
its  repetition,  hung  round  his  neck  a  pebble, 
which  he  placed  in  his  mouth  on  entering  the 
mosque. 

When  putting  on  for  the  first  time  the  "  Stone  of 
Submission,"  the  Dervish  utters  this  prayer  : — 

"  O  Allah,  the  rites  of  the  Brethren  have  become 
my  faith  ;  no  doubt  now  exists  in  my  heart.  As  I 
hang  round  my  neck  the  teshem  tdsh,  I  give  myself 
to  Thee.  In  the  name  of  Allah,  the  Merciful,  and 
the  Clement."     Then  follows  the  recitation  of  the 

1  This  reputed  saying  of  Moses  has  remained  a  current 
expression  in  the  mouth  of  Dervishes. 


THE  COSTUMES,  ETC.  117 

chapter  of  the  Koran  relative  to  the  striking  of  the 
rock  by  Moses. 

A  stone  of  a  crescent  shape  called  the  mengoosh 
tdsh  is  also  worn  as  an  earring.  It  is  supposed  to 
represent  the  shoe  of  Ah's  horse  "  Diildiil."  A 
Dervish  who  wears  it  in  only  one  ear  is  called  a 
Hassani  ;  one  who  wears  it  in  both,  a  Hussaini — 
these  terms  referring  to  the  two  sons  of  AH.  The 
wearing  of  these  earrings  signifies  that  the  Dervish 
accepts  the  words  of  his  spiritual  Guide  as  those 
of  Allah,  and  that  they  are  the  laws  that  he 
hangs  perpetually  over  his  heart.  When  he  inserts 
them,  he  prays  :  "  End  of  all  increase  ;  Ring  about 
the  neck  of  all  prosperity  ;  Token  of  those  who  are 
in  Paradise  ;  Gift  of  the  Martyr  Shah  (Hussein)  ! 
Cursed  be  Yezld  !  "  (his  murderer). 

The  post  or  postaki,  the  sheepskin  mat  on  which 
the  Dervish  sits,  has  also  its  attributes.  Its  head 
signifies  "  Submission  "  ;  its  feet,  "  Service  "  ;  the 
right  side,  the  "  Hand  "  given  to  a  brother  at  his 
initiation  ;  the  left,  "  Honour  "  ;  the  east,  "  Secrecy"  ; 
the  west  "  Rehgion  "  ;  the  middle,  "  Love."  It 
has  also,  among  other  symbols,  its  Law,  which  means 
absorption  into  the  Divine  Love,  when  the  soul  is 
freed  from  the  body,  and  wanders  away  to  join 
other  sympathetic  spirits. 

A  curved  stick  called  the  chellek  is  kept  in  the 
Bektashi  Tekkehs  for  the  chastisement  of  erring 
Dervishes.  It  is  commemorative  of  that  used  by 
the  Khahf  to  chastise  his  groom,  Kamber,  who 
thenceforth  humbly  carried  it  in  his  girdle. 

9— (2 1 19) 


118  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

A  curiously  shaped  instrument  called  the  tehher  has 
been  mentioned  as  used  by  the  Bektashis  at  their 
ceremonies  of  initiation,  when  it  is  carried  by  one  of 
the  **  Interpreters,"  or  sponsors.  The  members  of 
this  Order  carry  also  a  horn  in  shape  like  that  of  a 
wild  goat,  and  a  two-beaked  almsbowl.  The  former 
is  sounded  in  the  Tekkehs  to  call  the  Brethren  to 
their  meals  and  devotions,  and  is  used  generally  as  a 
signal  from  one  Dervish  to  another.  It  appears  to  be 
an  imitation  of  that  said  to  be  carried  by  the  Angel 
Gabriel,  and  is  also  called  by  one  of  the  attributes 
of  the  Deity — "O  Loving" — and  a  Bektashi 
carrying  it  makes  use  of  that  exclamation. 

The  cap  of  the  Riifa'i,  or,  as  they  are  commonly 
termed  by  Europeans,  the  "  Howling  "  Dervishes, 
is  very  similar  in  form  and  material  to  that  worn 
by  the  Bektashi  Order,  and  is  also  called  a  "  Crown." 
It  is  of  undyed  felt,  but  divided  into  eight,  instead 
of  twelve  grooves,  each  signifying  the  renunciation 
of  a  sin — or  what  they  conceive  to  be  such.  The 
"  Crowns  "  of  their  Sheikhs  are,  however,  divided 
into  twelve  grooves  which  have  the  same  sym- 
bolism as  those  of  the  Bektashis,  and  their  turbans 
are  black. 

The  mantles  of  the  Riifa'i  Order  may  be  of  any 
colour,  but  are  always  bordered  with  green.  The 
reason  for  this  is  given  in  the  following  some- 
what vapid  little  legend  :  "  The  Prophet  once,  on 
receiving  some  good  tidings  from  the  Angel  Gabriel, 
started  up  and  turned  round  so  suddenly  that  his 
green  mantle  fell  off  his  shoulders.    His  disciples 


A   MEVLEVI    PLAYER   ON    THE    NEY,    OR    REED-FLUTE 


THE  COSTUMES,   ETC.  119 

(with  his  consent,  presumably)  took  possession  of 
the  mantle,  tore  it  into  shreds,  and  sewed  them 
round  the  edges  of  their  own  garments.  As  the 
Prophet  frequently  wore  a  black  khirka,  the  Sheikhs 
of  this  Order  often  follow  his  example."  ^ 

The  knives,  red-hot  irons  and  coals,  and  other 
instruments  used  by  the  Riifa'i  Order  in  their 
extraordinary  religious  exercises,  are  called  by  the 
symbolic  name  of  *' Roses."  ^  This  is  evidently 
connected  with  the  rose-symbolism  of  the  Kadiri 
Order,  whose  Pir  or  founder,  Abdul  KSdr  Ghilani, 
was,  as  above  mentioned,  the  uncle  and  spiritual 
teacher  of  the  Pir  of  the  Riifa'i  Dervishes. 

The  Kadiri  Rose,  embroidered  on  the  "  Crowns  " 
of  the  Brethren  of  that  Order,  is  to  them  full  of 
mystic  meaning.  Tradition  says  that  the  Prophet 
bestowed  the  name  of  his  "  Two  Roses  "  on  his 
grandsons,  Hasan  and  Hussain  ;  and  the  Sheikhs  of 

1  Tradition  relates  that  the  Prophet,  at  his  death, 
bequeathed  his  mantle  to  the  Dervish  Sheikh  Uwais,  referred 
to  on  p.  2.  It  is  said  to  be  a  long  robe  of  woollen  material 
made  with  a  collar,  and  wide  sleeves  reaching  to  the  knee. 
The  charge  of  this  sacred  garment  has  ever  since  remained 
in  the  family  of  Uwais.  Some  years  ago  when  the  here- 
ditary guardian  of  this  sacred  relic  happened  to  be  a  minor, 
a  Vakil,  or  deputy,  was  appointed  by  the  Sultan  to  discharge 
this  duty.  The  mantle  is  enshrined  in  one  of  the  buildings 
comprised  within  the  Old  Serai  at  Stamboul,  where  it  is 
"  venerated  "  by  the  Sultan  and  his  Court  on  the  occasion 
of  the  annual  festival  of  the  Khirka  Shereef,  and  also  on  the 
occasion  of  important  national  events. 

2  To  speak  of  wounds  as  **  flowers  "  is  a  common  figure 
of  speech  with  Eastern  poets.  Compare,  for  instance, 
Gibb,  Ottoman  Poetry,  p.  240. 


120  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

the  Order,  who  all  claim  descent  from  the  family  of 
Mohammed,  are  credited  with  the  possession  of 
peculiar  powers  in  connection  with  this  flower.^ 

According  to  a  legend  of  this  Order,  its  Pir  was 
directed  by  Khidhr  ^  to  proceed  to  Bagdad  and  there 
take  up  his  abode.  On  arriving  at  that  city  Abdul 
Kadr  received  from  the  resident  Sheikh  a  cup  filled 
to  the  brim  with  water,  which  signified  that  the 
place  was  already  full  of  holy  men,  and  that  there 
was  consequently  no  room  for  him.  Replying  in 
the  same  symbohc  language,  the  Saint  miraculously 
created  a  rose — it  was  mid-winter — and  placed  it  in 
the  cup,  which  did  not  even  then  overflow.  When 
this  was  carried  back  to  the  resident  Sheikh,  he  and 
those  with  him  read  the  message  :  "  There  is  yet 
room  in  Bagdad  for  the  Kadiri  Rose."  MarvelUng 
at  the  miracle,  they  exclaimed,  ''  The  Sheikh  Abdul 
Kadr  is  our  Rose  !  "  and  going  out  to  meet  their 
saintly  guest,  they  conducted  him  into  the  city 
with  every  mark  of  respect. 

The  conventional  rose  of  the  Kadiri  has  eighteen 
petals  arranged  in  three  rings  of  five,  six,  and  seven 
respectively,  and  its  colours  are  yellow,  red,  white 
and  black.  The  five  petals  are  symbohcal  of  the 
"  five  virtues  "  attributed  by  the  Pir  of  the  Order 

1  Sulieman  Effendi's  work  on  the  Mevlad,  or  Birth  of  the 
Prophet,  contains  the  following  couplet  in  reference  to 
Abdul    Kadr  :— 

Whenever  he  perspired,  each  drop  became  a  rose. 
Each  drop,  as  down  it  rolled,  was  gathered  as  a 
treasure. 
8  See  above,  p.  22. 


THE  COSTUMES,   ETC.  121 

to  the  followers  of  Islam  ;  the  six  are  symbohcal 
of  the  six  characteristics  of  faith  ;  and  the  seven 
refer  to  the  seven  verses  of  the  Fatiha,  the  first 
chapter  of  the  Koran,  which  is  also  denominated, 
among  other  honourable  titles,  the  "  Holy  Crown," 
and  the  **  Mother  of  the  Koran." 

The  Hamzavi  Order  appear  to  have  no  distinctive 
costume,  neither  do  they  make  use  of  any  mystical 
symbols  in  their  worship.  On  their  tombstones, 
however,  are  sculptured  peculiar  signs  consisting  of 
single  and  double  triangles,  with  dots  above  and 
below  the  angles,  and  the  "  Solomon's  Seal  "  of  six 
points,  without  the  dots. 

The  Dervish  tesbeh,  or  Rosary,  consists  of  ninety- 
nine  beads,  the  number  of  the  ''  Beautiful  names  of 
Allah  "  ;  and  as  a  Dervish  invokes  each  one  of  these 
in  his  Zikr,  he  records  it  upon  his  beads.  The 
rosary  is  also  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  each 
of  which  signifies  a  formula  of  worship. 

The  foregoing  are,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  ascer- 
tain, the  chief  among  the  emblematical  meanings 
connected  with  the  costumes  worn  and  the  objects 
used  by  the  various  Orders.  They,  however,  by 
no  means  exhaust  the  list.  For,  to  quote  again 
from  Evhya  Effendi,  "  a  Dervish's  dress  is  covered 
without  and  within  with  a  thousand  and  one  symbols 
which  give  occasion  for  a  thousand  and  one  ques- 
tions. He  who  is  capable  of  answering  them  all  is 
a  Master  of  the  Science  of  Mysticism,  a  true  Ascetic, 
and  an  Ocean  of  Knowledge." 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE   VARIOUS   RELIGIOUS   EXERCISES 

"  Each  Saint  and  Seer  a  sacred  rite  has  all  his  own  ; 
Yet,  as  each  rite  to  Allah  leads,  their  rites  are  one." 

Jelalu-'d-Din.     The  Mesnevi. 

"  Mystical  dance,  which  yonder  starry  sphere 
Of  planets,  and  of  fixed,  in  all  her  wheels 
Resembles  nearest." 

Milton.     Paradise  Lost,  v,  620-2. 

The  religious  exercises  of  the  Dervishes  may  be 
said  to  be,  speaking  generally,  of  but  two  varieties, 
the  Vocative  and  the  Contemplative.  The  Orders 
which  follow  the  Vocative  form  claim  descent  from 
the  original  congregation  of  the  Khalif  Ali  ;  and 
their  authority  for  this  mode  of  worship  they  profess 
to  find  in  the  Prophet's  injunction  :  "  Call  loudly 
and  without  ceasing  on  the  name  of  Allah !  "  given, 
tradition  says,  in  reply  to  his  nephew's  enquiry  as 
to  what  he  ought  to  do  in  order  to  obtain  Divine 
assistance.  The  Contemplative  Orders,  who  claim 
descent  from  the  Brotherhood  of  Abii  Bekr,  the 
Prophet's  uncle,  quote,  on  the  other  hand,  Moham- 
med's injunction  to  him  when  they  were  concealed 
together  in  a  cave  during  the  Fhght,  to  recite 
mentally  the  Zikr,  or  invocation  of  the  Divine  Name. 
The  exercises  of  many  of  the  leading  Orders,  how- 
ever, and  especially  of  those  who  follow  the  vocative 
form   of  worship,   present   other,   and  even   more 

122 


VARIOUS   RELIGIOUS  EXERCISES      123 

marked  dissimilarities.  The  services  of  the  Mevlevi, 
Rijfai,  and  a  few  of  the  other  Orders  are  pubhc,  and 
even  foreigners,  who  are  rarely  admitted  into  the 
mosques  at  the  hours  of  prayer,  are  courteously 
welcomed  in  the  Tekkehs  of  such  Orders.  The 
devotions  of  the  rest  are  performed  strictly  in 
private,  and  do  not,  indeed,  appear  to  be  of  a 
character  attractive  to  outsiders. 

The  Mevlevi  Order  is  distinguished  by  its  pecuhar 
dance,  which  differs  entirely  from  the  rehgious 
exercises  of  the  rest  of  the  Dervishes.  The  accom- 
paniment to  this  sacred  dance  of  instrumental  and 
vocal  music  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  the 
founder  of  the  Order,  Jelalu-'d-Din  ;  but  dancing, 
or  twirling,  by  Dervishes  had  evidently  a  much 
more  ancient  origin,  as  mention  of  it  occurs  in  the 
"  Thousand  Nights  and  a  Night."  The  number  of 
brethren  taking  part  in  the  ceremony  is  usually  from 
fifteen  to  thirty,  including  the  musicians.  When 
the  latter,  wearing  their  tall  hats  and  long  cloaks, 
have  taken  their  places  in  the  gallery,  the  rest  of  the 
fraternity,  similarly  dressed,  their  dancing  skirts 
being  tucked  up  and  covered  by  their  mantles,  enter 
the  Tekkeh  barefooted,  and  seat  themselves  to  the 
left  of  the  doorway  on  the  strip  of  carpet  that 
borders  the  octagonal,  or  circular  central  space.  The 
Sheikh,  who  wears  in  addition  a  green  turban  round 
his  kulah,  advances  to  a  small  prayer-mat  opposite 
his  disciples,  and  the  service  begins  at  once  with  the 
Namaz — the  devotions  performed  five  times  daily 
by  all  good  Moslems.     The  Sheikh  then  invites  the 


124  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

brethren  to  join  him  in  reciting  the  Fatiha  in  these 
words  :  "  Let  us  chant  the  Fatiha,  glorifying  the 
holy  name  of  Allah,  in  honour  of  the  blessed  religion 
of  the  Prophets,  but,  above  all,  of  Mohammed 
Mustapha,  the  greatest,  the  most  august,  the  most 
magnificent  of  all  the  celestial  envoys,  and  in 
memory  also,  of  the  first  four  Khalifs  (then  follows 
a  list  of  names  of  the  family  of  the  Prophet,  the  Pir, 
and  other  holy  men).  Let  us  pray  for  the  constant 
prosperity  of  our  holy  society,  for  the  preservation 
of  the  very  learned  and  venerable  Chelebi  Effendi,  ^ 
our  Master  and  Lord  ;  for  the  preservation  of  the 
Sultan,  the  very  majestic  and  clement  Emperor  of  the 
faith  of  Islam  ;  for  the  prosperity  of  the  Grand  Vizier, 
and  the  Sheikh-ul-Islam,  and  that  of  all  Moham- 
medan armies,  and  of  all  pilgrims  to  the  holy  city 
of  Mekka.  Let  us  pray  for  the  repose  of  the  souls 
of  all  the  Pits  and  of  all  the  Dervishes  of  all  other 
Orders  ;  for  all  good  people,  for  all  those  who  have 
been  distinguished  for  their  good  works,  their 
foundations  [of  charitable  estabhshments],  and 
their  acts  of  beneficence.  Let  us  also  pray  for  the 
Moslems  of  both  sexes  in  the  East  and  the  West, 
for  the  maintenance  of  all  prosperity,  for  the  pre- 
vention of  all  adversity,  for  the  accomplishment  of 
all  salutary  vows,  and  for  the  success  of  all  praise- 
worthy enterprises.  Let  us  finally  beseech  Allah 
to  deign  to  preserve  us  in  the  gift  of  His  grace, 
and  in  the  fire  of  Holy  Love." 

The  Dervishes  then  chant  the  Fatiha :  "  Praise 

1  The  General  of  the  Order. 


VARIOUS  RELIGIOUS  EXERCISES     125 

be  to  Allah,  the  Lord  of  all  creatures,  the  Most 
Merciful,  the  King  of  the  Day  of  Judgment. 
Thee  do  we  worship,  and  of  Thee  do  we  beg 
assistance.  Direct  us  in  the  right  way,  in  the 
way  of  those  to  whom  Thou  hast  been  gracious, 
and  not  of  those  against  whom  Thou  art  incensed, 
nor  of  those  who  go  astray."  This  is  followed 
by  a  prayer  to  the  Pir  asking  for  his  intercession 
with  Allah  and  the  Prophet.  The  Sheikh  then 
steps  off  his  prayer-mat,  and,  standing  to  the  right 
of  it,  bows  low  in  reverence  to  the  Pir,  by  whom 
it  is  believed  to  be  now  occupied.  Taking  a  step 
forward,  he  twists  himself  round,  and,  standing  to 
the  left  of  the  mat,  he  bows  again.  He  then  resumes 
his  former  place,  and  one  of  the  brethren  in  the 
orchestra  chants  a  hymn  in  praise  of  the  Prophet 
which  is  followed  by  a  performance  by  the 
orchestra. 

An  elder,  called  the  Sema  Z^n — who,  Hke  the 
Sheikh,  retains  his  cloak  all  through  the  ceremony 
and  does  not  join  in  the  devr,  or  turning — now  leaves 
his  place  among  the  Dervishes  and  approaches  his 
Superior.  Standing  with  his  right  great  toe  crossed 
over  the  left,  and  his  arms  crossed  on  his  breast,  he 
bows  first  to  the  right  then  to  the  left  of  the  Sheikh, 
kisses  his  hand,  and  then  takes  up  his  position  in  the 
centre  of  the  hall.  The  rest  of  the  brethren,  who 
have  in  the  meantime  risen  to  their  feet,  taken  off 
their  cloaks  and  let  fall  their  skirts,  now  advance  in 
single  file.  Follpwing  the  example  of  the  Sema  Zan, 
they  bow  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  Sheikh's  prayer 


126  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

mat,  with  crossed  toes,  arms  folded,  and  hands 
grasping  their  shoulders,  and  then  kiss  the  hand  of 
their  Master,  who  in  return  bestows  a  kiss  on  their 
kulaks.  This  done,  they  immediately  begin  to  turn, 
balancing  themselves  on  the  left  foot  while  main- 
taining a  rotatory  motion  with  the  right.  The 
Sheikh  meanwhile  remains  standing  with  devout 
mien  and  downcast  eyes.  Gradually  the  arms  of 
the  dancers  are  extended  ;  the  right  hand  is  raised 
with  the  palm  uppermost,  and  the  left  lowered  with 
the  palm  turned  downwards.  The  eyes  are  closed, 
and  the  head  inchned  on  the  left  shoulder.  Mentally 
reciting  the  Zikr  they  whirl  round  the  "  Hall  of 
Celestial  Sounds."  The  faces  of  even  the  youngest 
members  wear  an  expression  of  deep  serenity  as 
they  revolve  to  the  sound  of  the  flutes  and  drums, 
a  music  which  appears  to  have  an  entrancing  effect 
on  those  who  understand  its  mystic  language.  For 
the  Dervish  "  Lovers  of  Allah  "  it  expresses  the 
harmony  of  His  creation  in  which  they  circle  like 
the  stars  of  the  empyrean,  isolated  from  the  world 
in  a  rapture  of  spiritual  love  and  communion  with 
Him. 

Some  of  the  younger  Der\'ishes  spin  very  rapidly. 
At  the  Mevleh  Khaneh  at  Salonica  I  used  to  remark 
particularly  two  neophytes,  evidently  under  eighteen 
years  of  age,  who  were  extraordinarily  proficient  in 
this  exercise ;  but  some  of  the  older  brethren 
turned  very  slowly  and  feebly.  None,  however, 
showed  any  signs  of  fatigue  or  giddiness.  When 
the   devr    has  continued   for    some   ten   or  fifteen 


VARIOUS  RELIGIOUS  EXERCISES     127 

minutes,  the  Semd  Zdn  gives  the  signal  for  its  dis- 
continuance by  stamping  with  one  thinly-shod  foot 
on  the  floor.  The  Dervishes,  as  a  rule,  all  stop  at 
the  same  instant  hke  the  wheels  of  a  machine,  and, 
very  curiously,  all  in  a  circle  with  their  faces  turned 
towards  the  Sheikh,  though  sometimes  one  or  two, 
more  absorbed  than  the  rest  in  their  mystic  ecstasy, 
fail  to  hear  the  signal,  which  has  sometimes  to  be 
repeated  more  than  once.  Crossing  their  arms  on 
their  breasts,  and  grasping  their  shoulders,  they 
bow  low  to  their  superior,  and  then,  faUing  into 
single  file,  pass  before  him  with  the  same  reverences 
as  before,  and  re-commence  their  gyrations.  This 
exercise  is  usually  repeated  a  third  time,  after  which 
the  Dervishes  resume  their  seats  on  the  floor,  and 
cover  themselves  with  their  mantles.  The  service 
concludes  with  recitations  from  the  Koran,  and  the 
customary  prayer  for  the  Sultan. 

Each  Tekkeh  has  a  particular  day,  or  days,  in 
the  week  for  the  pubhc  performances  of  the  brethren, 
and,  in  places  like  Constantinople,  where  there  are 
several  communities  belonging  to  the  same  Order, 
the  Dervishes  visit  and  take  part  in  each  other's 
ceremonies.  Nothing,  however,  forbids  a  Dervish 
to  take  part  in  the  rehgious  exercises  of  another 
Order,  save  want  of  the  necessary  practice  and  skill. 
If  a  Kadiri,  for  instance,  can  perform  the  devr  of 
the  Mevlevi  Order,  he  has  only  to  apply  to  the 
superintendent  of  the  Tekkeh  for  a  costume  and  is 
welcome  to  enter  the  hall  with  the  brethren. 

Among    the    Riifai,   Kadiri,   Khalveti,   Bairami, 


128  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

Gulshani,  Ushaki  and  some  other  Orders,  the  devr 
consists  in  the  Dervishes  holding  each  other  by  the 
hand,  or  pressing  closely  together,  and  increasing 
the  movements  of  their  bodies  at  every  step  they 
take  in  making  the  round  of  the  hall.  A  performer 
may  disengage  himself  from  the  circle  and  desist 
from  the  devr  at  any  moment  he  pleases  ;  but  those 
gifted  with  greater  powers  of  endurance  and  more 
enthusiastic  temperaments  strive  by  their  exertions 
to  excite  the  rest.  These  take  off  their  "  crowns  " — 
which  they  hand  to  the  Sheikh — form  an  inner  circle, 
entwine  their  arms  and  press  their  shoulders 
together,  repeating  incessantly  Yd  Allah !  or 
Yd  Hoo  !  until  compelled  by  sheer  exhaustion  to 
desist. 

The  Rufai  Order  not  only  exceed  the  others  in  the 
violence  of  their  exercises,  but  use  also  in  their 
frenzy  knives,  fire,  and  hot  irons.  The  opening 
ritual  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  generahty  of  the 
Orders,  but  the  services  last  longer,  and  are  divided 
into  five  distinct  ceremonies,  some  of  which  are 
pecuHar  to  this  Order.  The  Sheikh  is  seated  on  a 
sheepskin  mat  in  front  of  the  kibleh — the  niche  in 
the  wall  which  indicates  the  direction  of  Mekka — 
and  the  service  opens  with  acts  of  homage  performed 
before  him.  Four  of  the  elders  first  approach, 
embrace  each  other,  and  seat  themselves  two  on 
either  side  of  their  superior.  The  other  Dervishes 
then  come  forward  one  by  one,  with  crossed  arms 
and  bowed  heads.  They  first  salute  the  name  of 
the  Founder  engraved  on  a  tablet  of  stone  over  the 


VARIOUS  RELIGIOUS  EXERCISES     129 

kibleh,  pass  both  their  hands  over  their  faces  and 
beards,  and,  kneehng  in  turn  before  the  Superior,  kiss 
his  hand,  and  then  proceed  to  their  places  on  the 
sheepskin  mats  spread  in  a  horse-shoe  design  in 
front  of  him.  All  now  chant  the  Tekbir  and  the 
Fatiha.  This  concluded,  the  Sheikh  pronounces  the 
first  attribute  of  the  Deity,  repeating  it  incessantly 
while  the  disciples  respond  Allah  !  Allah  !  swaying 
themselves  from  side  to  side  and  placing  their  hands 
in  turn  on  various  parts  of  their  bodies.  One  of 
the  elders  then  commences  the  second  half  of  the 
service  by  chanting  a  hymn  in  praise  of  the  Prophet, 
the  Dervishes  meanwhile  continuing  their  repetition 
of  the  Zikr  ;  now,  however,  moving  their  bodies 
backwards  and  forwards.  After  a  while  they  spring 
to  their  feet,  and  stand  close  together,  swaying  by 
a  movement  of  the  whole  body  from  side  to  side, 
and  then  again  backwards  and  forwards,  all  observ- 
ing an  exact  rhythm  in  their  exercise,  and  con- 
tinuing the  ejaculation  of  Allah !  Allah !  varied 
occasionally  by  that  of  Ya  Hoo !  ("  O  Him  !  "). 
They  now  appear  violently  agitated,  sigh  and  sob, 
shed  tears,  and  perspire  profusely  ;  their  eyes  are 
closed,  their  faces  pale,  and  their  expression  and 
demeanour  languid  in  the  extreme. 

The  third  scene  commences  to  the  sound  of  an 
Ildhi,  or  mystical  song  composed  by  one  of  the  many 
canonised  Sheikhs  of  this  Order.  While  it  is  being 
sung  by  two  of  the  elders,  the  most  enthusiastic 
of  the  brethren  places  himself  in  the  midst  of  his 
fellows,  and  by  his  example  excites  them  to  a  higher 


130  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

pitch  of  religious  fervour.  Should  a  Dervish  belong- 
ing to  another  community  happen  to  be  present, 
it  is  considered  an  act  of  courtesy  to  offer  him  this 
office,  and  should  there  be  several  visitors,  they 
perform  it  in  succession.  A  Mevlevi,  however,  is 
not  expected  to  perform  any  but  his  own  Devr. 

In  the  fourth  scene  all  the  Dervishes  lay  aside 
their  turbans,  form  a  circle  with  arms  and  shoulders 
pressed  against  each  other,  and  make  the  circuit  of 
the  hall,  alternately  striking  the  floor  with  their 
feet  in  unison,  and  springing  up  in  a  body.  The 
two  elders  continue  their  chanting,  interrupted  from 
time  to  time  by  cries  of  Yd  Allah !  and  Yd  Hoo ! 
which  increase,  when  shouted  all  together,  to  the 
extraordinary  sound  which  has  gained  for  them  the 
name  of  the  "  Howhng  Dervishes.'*  If  at  any 
moment  they  appear  about  to  stop  from  sheer 
exhaustion,  the  Sheikh  exhorts  them  to  fresh  exer- 
tions by  placing  himself  in  their  midst.  The  elders 
follow  suit  and  outdo  the  rest  in  physical  agitation, 
exciting  their  emulation  by  every  means  in  their 
power.  Two  Dervishes  now  take  down  from  niches 
in  the  wall  several  sharp-pointed  iron  instruments, 
and,  having  heated  them  red  hot  in  a  brazier,  present 
them  to  the  Sheikh.  And  now  commences  the  final 
scene. 

The  Sheikh  recites  prayers  over  the  instruments, 
invokes  the  name  of  the  Pir,  breathes  upon  them, 
raises  them  to  his  hps,  and  then  presents  them  to 
his  disciples.  These  devotees,  excited  by  their 
previous  exercises,  are  now  in  the  state  of  rehgious 


w 

G 

O 

I— ( 
> 

w 
h-l 
> 


w 

H 

c 

> 

w 

Q 
H 


VARIOUS   RELIGIOUS  EXERCISES     131 

delirium  called  hal.  Some  eagerly  seize  the  hot 
irons,  regard  them  fondly,  plunge  them  into  their 
flesh,  lick  them,  or  hold  them  in  their  mouths  ;  and 
all  without  evincing  any  sign  of  pain,  but  rather 
as  if  intoxicated  by  the  perfume  of  the  "  Rose  of 
Bagdad,"  of  which  they  are  said  to  be  mystically 
symbolical.  ^  Others  seize  daggers  from  their  resting- 
places  on  the  walls,  or  hot  coals  from  the  brazier,  with 
which  they  cut  or  burn  their  flesh.  Some  fall,  over- 
come by  their  excitement,  into  the  arms  of  their 
brethren ;  and  all  finally  sink,  exhausted  and 
unconscious,  on  the  floor.  The  Sheikh  presently 
walks  among  them,  whispers  in  their  ears  a  mystical 
word  that  recalls  them  to  consciousness,  breathes 
upon  them,  and  anoints  their  wounds  with  his 
saliva.  It  is  said,  and  indeed  commonly  believed 
by  the  Mohammedan  spectators,  that  all  traces  of 
their  hurts  disappear  within  twenty-four  hours.  A 
Riifai  legend  says  that  their  founder,  Ahmed  Said 
Rufai,  having  on  one  occasion  put  his  legs  in  a  pan 
of  live  coals,  his  burns  were  immediately  healed  by 
the  nefs  (breath)  and  saliva  of  his  uncle,  Abdul 
Kadr  Ghilani,  who  at  the  same  time  endowed  with 
his  healing  power  the  Riifai  Pir. 

The  DevY  of  the  Sadi  Order  is  similar  to  that 
just  described,  but  leads  to  no  self-mutilations.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  violent  changes  of  attitude  and 
physical  agitation,  continued  until  the  devotees 
finally  fall  exhausted  and  unconscious. 

The   Kadiris,   after   reciting  the  Fatiha  already 

1  See  above,  p.  119. 


132  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

described,  take  each  other  by  the  shoulders  and 
turn  in  a  circle  round  the  hall  of  their  Tekkeh.  This 
variety  of  the  devr  was  not  originated  by  the 
founder  of  the  Order,  but  was  adopted  at  the 
instance  of  one  of  its  most  eminent  Sheikhs. 

Among  the  "  contemplative "  Dervishes  the 
Bektashis  are  the  most  numerous.  Their  devotions, 
after  the  customary  recitations,  are  conducted  in 
silence,  a  form  of  worship  known  as  the  Hiffl. 

The  service  of  the  Nakshibendi  Order  consists  of 
one  prayer  called  the  Iklah,  repeated  a  thousand  and 
one  times.  This  number  of  pebbles  is  distributed 
among  the  brethren  who  are  seated  in  a  circle 
on  the  floor  ;  and,  as  each  one  completes  the  mental 
recitation  of  an  Iklah,  he  lays  down  before  him  a 
pebble  until  the  whole  number  are  deposited 
within  the  circle. 

The  Hamzavis,  or  as  they  are  also  called,  Melami- 
youns,  appear  to  have  in  former  centuries  main- 
tained great  secrecy  with  regard  to  their  rehgious 
rites — a  fact  that  not  unnaturally  gave  rise  to 
suspicions  of  their  orthodoxy.  They  were  accused 
of  belonging  to  the  Order  of  Freemasons,  ^  and,  as 
related  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  ^  were  subjected  to 
active  persecution.  To  judge,  however,  from  their 
Litany,  they  appear  to  be  a  singularly  pious  sect, 
and  they  enjoy  the  reputation  of  being  most  con- 
scientious   in   all    their    dealings,    hving    only   for 


)) 


1  The     term      Fermason  =  "  Freemason,"     is,    among 
orthodox  Moslems,  synonymous  with  "  infidel.' 

2  Below,  p.  186. 


VARIOUS  RELIGIOUS  EXERCISES     133 

their  doctrines,  regardless  of  the  things  of  this 
world. 

The  following  account  of  their  rites  and  principles 
from  the  writings  of  Abdul  Baki,  a  Dervish  of 
the  Order,  is  quoted  from  Mr.  Brown's  The 
Dervishes  ^ : — 

"  Whenever  those  who  follow  in  this  path,  and 
who  love  the  unique  God,  to  the  number  of  two  or 
three,  or  more,  are  about  to  meet  together  and  join 
in  the  tevheed  and  the  zikYy  and  their  hearts  are 
occupied  with  their  worldly  affairs,  they  should,  on 
their  way  to  the  place  of  meeting,  employ  their 
minds  with  thoughts  of  God,  in  all  sincerity  and 
purity,  and  also  beg  their  Pir  to  lend  them  his 
spiritual  aid,  so  that  when  they  reach  the  place  of 
meeting  they  may  all,  small  and  great,  with  humihty 
and  contrition,  embrace  the  hand  of  each  other,  and 
devoutly  join  in  the  contemplation  of  the  Deity, 
and  turn  their  faces  towards  the  Grace  of  the  All- 
Just,  the  ever  rising  Love  of  Allah,  without  har- 
bouring in  the  tongue,  in  the  mind,  or  otherwise, 
any  thoughts  respecting  worldly  concerns,  but, 
with  perfect  hearts  and  active  spirits,  take  part  in 
these  pious  ceremonies. 

"  They  must  next  offer  up  those  prayers  which  are 
conformable  with  the  rules  of  the  Order,  seat  them- 
selves, and,  if  there  be  among  them  anyone  possess- 
ing a  pleasing  voice,  let  him  read  aloud  ten  verses 
of  the  great  Koran,  and  interest  the  congregation 
with  some  account  of  the  Prophets  and  Saints,  or 

1  P.  182. 

10— (3119) 


134  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

even  of  the  Deity.  No  one  must  feel  concern  about 
his  worldly  affairs,  but  the  remarks  of  all  must  relate 
to  the  Love  of  Allah,  or  tend  to  pious  fervour.  No 
one  not  belonging  to  the  Order  must  be  admitted, 
for,  should  any  such  be  present,  the  pecuhar  gift  of 
God  (Faiz  Ullah)  will  not  be  vouchsafed." 

The  aim  of  the  Nakshibendi  Order,  in  the  per- 
formance of  their  zikr,  is  to  detach  the  senses  com- 
pletely from  worldly  surroundings.  The  Sheikh 
and  his  disciples  sit  facing  each  other,  the  former 
mentally  reciting  the  invocation,  while  each  of  the 
brethren  endeavours  to  keep  his  attention  fixed  by 
placing  his  heart  in  imagination  in  view  of  that  of 
his  Master,  closes  his  eyes  and  hps,  presses  his 
tongue  against  the  roof  of  his  mouth,  and  so  regu- 
lates his  breathing  that  between  each  respiration  he 
can  mentally  repeat  three  times  the  zikr. 

As  already  mentioned,  ^  the  Order  of  the  Nakshi- 
bendi was  a  revival  of  the  original  fraternity  of 
Abu  Bekr  which,  by  the  successful  estabhshment  of 
other  Orders,  had  become  extinct.  The  Brother- 
hood meet  once  a  week,  generally  on  a  Thursday 
at  sunset,  the  hour  of  the  fifth  Namdz  or  daily  prayer. 
In  each  city,  suburb,  or  quarter  (mahalldh)  the 
members  of  this  religious  society  assemble  at  the 
houses  of  their  respective  Sheikhs,  where,  seated 
round  the  room  on  the  divan,  they  perform  their 
devotions.  The  Superior,  or  one  of  the  fraternity, 
chants  the  prayers,  and  the  assembly  responds 
Hoof     or   Allah!     In   some   cities,   how^ever,    this 

1  Above,  p.  17. 


VARIOUS  RELIGIOUS  EXERCISES     135 

Order  possesses  special  Tekkehs  in  which  their 
services  are  held  ;  and  in  these  cases  their  Sheikh  is 
distinguished  from  his  congregation  by  a  turban 
similar  to  that  worn  by  the  Imams  who  officiate  in 
the  mosques. 


CHAPTER    IX 

SURVIVALS   OF   PAGANISM 

"  The  talisman  of  magic  might, 
Hid  in  some  ruin's  lonely  site, 
Emerges  from  its  ancient  night 
At  the  mild  glance  of  Dervishes." 

Hafiz. 

Considering  that  the  existence  of  magic  and 
witchcraft,  and  the  power  of  the  "  Evil  Eye  "  are 
stated  as  absolute  facts  in  the  Koran,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  in  Mohammedan  countries  super- 
stitious behefs  and  practices  play  so  great  a  part 
in  the  social  life  of  the  people.  For  to  deny  the 
existence  of  magicians  and  enchantments  would 
be  tantamount  to  denying  the  authenticity  of  the 
Holy  Book  ;  and  a  devout  Moslem,  even  if  suffi- 
ciently enhghtened  to  discredit  the  popular  super- 
stitions that  meet  him  at  every  turn,  is  constrained 
to  admit  that  magic  was  practised  on  the  very  person 
of  the  Prophet.  The  words  made  use  of  as  counter- 
spells,  and  exorcisms  are,  indeed,  taken  chiefly  from 
the  two  chapters  of  the  Koran  relating  to  magic 
and  malevolence,  and  beginning  : — 

"  Say,  I  fly  for  refuge  unto  the  Lord  of  the  Day- 
break, that  he  may  deliver  me  from  the  mischief 
of  those  things  which  He  hath  created,  and  from 
the  mischief  of  the  night  when  it  cometh  on,  and 
from  the  mischief  of  women    blowing    on    knots, 

1S6 


SURVIVALS  OF  PAGANISM  137 

and  from  the  mischief  of  the  envious  when  he 
envieth,"  etc.^ 

Commentators  on  the  Koran  relate  that  the 
reason  for  the  revelation  of  these  chapters  was  that 
a  Jew  named  Lobeid,  had,  with  the  assistance  of 
his  daughters,  bewitched  Mohammed  by  tying 
eleven  knots  in  a  cord  which  they  hid  in  a  well. 
The  Prophet  falhng  ill  in  consequence,  this  chapter 
and  that  following  it  were  revealed ;  and  the 
Angel  Gabriel  acquainted  him  with  the  use  he  was 
to  make  of  them,  and  told  him  where  the  cord  was 
hidden.  The  Khalif  Ali  fetched  the  cord,  and  the 
Prophet  repeated  over  it  these  two  chapters  ;  at 
every  verse  a  knot  was  loosed,  till,  on  finishing  the 
last  words,  he  was  entirely  freed  from  the  charm.  ^ 

In  the  chapter  on  Convents  and  Shrines  I  have 
described  a  somewhat  similar  operation  performed 
by  a  Mevlevi  Dervish  at  the  tomb  of  St.  Dimitri. 
In  this  case,  however,  the  knots  were  evidently 
made  with  the  object  of  "  t3^ng  up  "  sickness  and 
other  ills. 

The  ignorant  among  the  Moslems  of  Turkey,  in 

^  Koran,  Surah  cxiii, 

2  In  a  note  to  this  chapter  in  his  translation  Mr.  Sale  says 
that  the  words  "  blowing  on  knots  "  refer  to  "  witches  who 
used  to  tie  knots  and  to  blow  upon  them,  uttering  at  the 
same  time  certain  magical  words  over  them  in  order  to 
work  on  or  debilitate  the  person  they  had  a  mind  to  injure." 
In  the  same  note  it  is  stated  that  "  this  was  a  common 
practice  in  former  days — what  they  call  in  France  nouev 
Veguillette — and  the  knots  which  the  wizards  in  the  northern 
parts  tie  when  they  sell  mariners  a  wind  are  relics  of  the 
same  superstition." 


138  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

common,  it   must   be   admitted,   with  the   native 
Christians  and  Jews,  attribute  the  majority  of  the 
ills  the  flesh  is  heir  to,  and  also  misfortunes  gener- 
ally, to  the  influence  of  magic ;  and,  consequently, 
have  recourse  to  the  same  mysterious  agency  for 
their  cure.     By  the  populace  the  Dervishes  are  held 
to  be  experts  in  the  magic  of  the  old  Paganism, 
belief  in  which  is  thus  sanctioned  by  their  Holy 
Book.     They  are,  indeed,  credited  with  the  faculty 
not  only  of  heahng  mental  and  bodily  diseases,  but 
also  of  counteracting  the  effects  of  witchcraft  and 
sorcery,  of  interpreting  dreams,  recovering  lost  or 
stolen  property,  and  even  of  restoring  to  wives  the 
waning  affection  of  their  husbands.      When  anyone 
falls  ill,  the  women  of  the  family — for  it  need  hardly 
be  said  that  the  firmest  behevers  in  this  mode  of 
spiritual  cure  are  of  the  female  sex — send  for  some 
saintly  Sheikh  to  remove  the  spell  which  has  caused 
the  ailment,  or,  at  least,  to  counteract  its  influence. 
This  holy  man,   whose  breath,   sanctified  by  the 
constant  repetition  of  the  Divine  Name  (Zikr),  has 
acquired  a  supernaturally  heahng  power,  breathes 
on  the  head  and  afflicted  parts  of  the  patient,  laying 
at  the  same  time  his  hands  upon  him.     This  con- 
cluded, he  produces  a  tiny  scroll  of  paper  inscribed 
with  some  sacred  words,  or  a  passage  from  the  Koran, 
which  he  orders  to  be  either  swallowed  by  the  sufferer, 
soaked  in  water  and  the  hquid  drunk,  or  worn  on 
the  person   for  a  stated  number  of  days.     It  is 
recorded  in  the  Mesnevi   that  Jelalu-'d-Din  made 
use  of  this  remedy  to  cure  a  disciple  suffering  from 


SURVIVALS  OF   PAGANISM  139 

intermittent  fever.  The  potion  was  accompanied 
by  the  following  supplication  in  which  the  malady 
is  personahsed  and  addressed  by  a  propitiatory 
title  :— 

"  O  Mother  of  the  Sleek  One  !  If  thou  hast  beUeved 
in  Allah,  the  Most  High,  make  not  the  head  to 
ache,  pollute  not  the  throat,  devour  not  the  flesh, 

drink  not  the  blood,  and  depart  thou  out  of  , 

betaking  thyself  to  one  who  attributes  to  Allah 
partners  of  other  false  gods.  And  I  testify  that 
there  is  no  god  but  God,  and  that  Mohammed  is 
His  Servant  and  Apostle."  ^ 

Among  other  exorcisms,  the  use  of  which  is  said 
to  have  originated  at  the  time  of  Mohammed, 
it  is  related  by  the  historian,  Ahmet  Effendi,  that, 
in  the  tenth  year  of  the  Hegira,  the  Khahf  Ah  being 
about  to  march  against  the  province  of  Yemen,  the 
army  of  which  far  outnumbered  his  own,  expressed 
some  anxiety  as  to  the  success  of  the  expedition. 
To  reanimate  the  courage  of  his  nephew,  the  Prophet 
put  his  own  turban  on  the  head  of  Ali,  and  pressed 
his  hands  on  his  breast,  saying,  *'  O  Allah,  purify 
his  tongue,  strengthen  his  heart,  and  direct  his 
mind  !  "  Religious  tradition  has  exaggerated  the 
importance  of  these  words  until  they  have  come  to 
be  considered  the  source  from  which  the  exorcising 

1  The  smallpox  is  similarly  designated  by  the  Greeks 
"  the  Blessing,"  and  by  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  "  the  Chief." 
The  Greeks  have  many  similar  exorcisms.      See  Polites, 

At  'Ac^eVetat  Kara  rods  /xvOovs  tov  'E\\r]ViKOv  AaoC,  in  the  AeXrlou 
rrjs  'IffTopiKris  Kal  'E6vo\oyiKfjs  'Eraipias  Vol.  I.       One  of  these  has 

been  given  in  my  Greek  Folk-poesy,  Vol.  II. 


140  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

Sheikhs  derive  the  virtue  and  efficacy  of  their  spiritual 
remedies. 

Cabahstic  talismans  prepared  by  Dervishes 
are  also  in  great  request  as  preventives  against,  as 
well  as  cures  for,  real  and  imaginary  calamities,  and 
are  constantly  worn  attached  to  the  head-dress,  or 
hung  round  the  neck.  The  efficacy  of  the  scrolls 
just  described,  which  are  called  by  the  various 
names  of  nushka,  yafta,  and  hammdil,  can  only  be 
rehed  upon,  according  to  the  Sheikhs  who  prescribe 
them,  when  administered  by  their  own  hands.  But 
whatever  the  success  of  these  remedies  may  be  in 
individual  cases,  nothing  can  shake  popular  belief 
in  their  general  efficacy.  If  the  patient  is  not  bene- 
fited by  them,  the  fault  naturally  Hes  in  his  want 
of  faith,  or  in  the  neglect  of  some  other  condition. 
The  holy  man,  in  any  case,  receives  an  honorarium 
for  his  services,  either  in  coin  or  in  kind  ;  but  if  a 
speedy  cure  is  the  result  of  his  ministrations,  his 
reward  will  be  large  in  proportion. 

The  Dervishes,  in  common  with  all  Orientals, 
attach  great  sacredness  to  the  thirty-four  letters  of 
the  Arabic  Alphabet,  and  assign  to  each  a  numerical 
value.  Of  this  mode  of  thinking  we  have  a  familiar 
illustration  in  the  Apocalyptic  puzzle  of  the  name 
of  the  seven -headed  beast  which  *'  is  the  number 
of  a  man  ;  and  his  number  is  six  hundred  and  three 
score  and  six,"  ^  a  puzzle  of  which  the  true  solution 
has  been  shown  to  be  ^ipwv  Kalaap,  the  value  of 
which  letters,  transcribed  in  Hebrew,  is  ^iQ.     Most 

^  Rev/xiii,  18. 


SURVIVALS  OF  PAGANISM  141 

persistent,  too,  have  been  the  superstitious  notions 
with  regard  to  numbers.  We  find  that  in  1666,  the 
Jews,  not  only  in  the  East,  but  in  many  parts  of 
Europe,  were  so  confident  of  the  appearance  of  the 
Messiah  that  the  Jewish  imposter,  Shabathai  Shevi, 
found  himself  surrounded  by  disciples  in  every  town 
in  which  he  announced  his  Messiahship.  And  that, 
even  in  England  at  the  present  day,  belief  in  the 
"  magic  of  figures  *'  is  not  extinct  is  evident  from  a 
paragraph  which  appeared  in  a  London  newspaper 
at  the  beginning  of  1888,  recording  the  eventful 
character  to  this  country  of  former  years  whose  three 
final  figures  were  ahke,  and  suggesting  that  the 
same  being  the  fact  in  1888  "  is  itself  portentous.'*^ 
The  numerical  values  of  the  Arabic  alphabet  are 
made  use  of  to  draw  up  a  class  of  tahsmans  of  a 
mystical  and  cabalistic  character  by  means  of  what 
the  Dervishes  call  the  "  Science  of  Calculation." 
Chronograms  are  written  according  to  the  same 
system,  and  in  many  of  the  inscriptions  on  public 
edifices,  the  last  line,  though  written  in  the  same 
character  as  the  rest,  and  expressing  in  connection 
with  them  some  poetical  idea,  will  be  found,  on 
calculation,  to  give  also  the  date  of  its  composition. 
Eminent  Dervishes  were  often  commanded  by  the 
early  Sultans  to  compose  such  inscriptions  as 
"  talismans  "  for  the  gateways  of  conquered  towns,  or 
newly-erected  public  buildings.  Hadji  Bektash  is 
said  to  have  composed  many  of  these  inscriptions, 
and,  very  curiously,  the  letters  forming  his  name 
1  Pall  Mall  Gazette,  Jan.  5,  1888. 


142  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

give  at  the  same  time  the  date  of  the  foundation  of 
his  Order. 

Tahsmanic  charms  are  also  often  composed, 
among  other  methods,  of  cabaHstic  calculations 
based  on  the  numerical  value  of  the  letters  com- 
posing the  name  of  the  person  interested.  In  a 
divination  for  the  purpose  of  fortune-telling,  these 
values  are  multipHed  and  divided,  and  their  cubes 
and  squares  added  and  subtracted  according  to 
some  conventional  formula,  to  obtain  a  result,  odd 
or  even.  If  even,  it  is  considered  lucky ;  if  odd,  the 
reverse. 

The  idea  of  the  sacred  and  mysterious  character 
of  letters  has  also  given  rise  to  a  belief  that  each 
one  has  its  special  attendant  Djin  appointed  by 
Allah  to  wait  upon  it,  and  that  these  Djins  may  be 
invoked  either  severally  or  collectively.  In  order 
to  secure  the  invisible  presence  of  these  "  Slaves  of 
the  Letter,''  the  calculations  must  be  drawn  up  on 
certain  days  and  hours,  and  at  certain  pei;iods  of 
the  moon  and  positions  of  the  stars.  Such  caba- 
listic figures  are  also  frequently  engraved  on  stones 
brought  from  the  holy  cities  of  Mekka,  Medina,  or 
Damascus,  or  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  tombs 
of  holy  men  such  as  Hadji  Bektash,  or  Hadji  Bairam. 
Sometimes,  however,  these  amulets  are  inscribed 
with  a  verse  from  the  Koran,  or  an  invocation 
addressed  to  the  Prophet  or  the  Khahf  Ah.  When 
a  charm  is  concocted  for  the  purpose  of  inspiring 
someone  with  the  tender  passion,  the  Djins  invoked 
by  it  are  believed  to  meet  in  council  in  order  to 


A    WANDERING    DERVISH 


SURVIVALS  OF  PAGANISM  143 

devise  a  series  of  influences  which  will  compel  the 
person  aimed  at  to  obey  them.  The  only  antidote 
against  such  a  charm  is  to  draw  up  one  that  will 
ensure  another  assembly  of  Djtns  who  will  either 
overcome  the  first,  or  compel  them  to  agree  to  a 
compromise,  and  so  release  the  victim  from  their 
influence.  Some  of  the  talismans  purchased  from 
these  Dervish  magicians  are  credited  with  the  power 
of  procuring  the  visits  of  beneficent  Djins  who  cure 
the  suffering  in  body,  ease  the  troubled  in  mmd,  and 
grant  the  desires  of  the  person  invoking  their  aid. 
Other  charms  are  beheved  to  influence  dreams 
when  placed  under  the  pillow  of  one  asleep. 

The  four  elements  are  also  credited  with  the 
possession  of  twenty-eight  letters  having  numerical 
values  ranging  from  one  to  a  thousand.  They  are 
divided  into  four  classes  of  seven  each,  and  to  each 
class  is  attributed  a  "  temperament  "  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  element  its  letters  represent.  To 
the  letters  representing  water  is  given  the  predomi- 
nance over  all  the  others,  as,  in  accordance  with  the 
Mohammedan  account  of  the  creation,  water  was 
the  original  element,  and  from  it  the  other  three 
were  created.^  Calculations  are  made  to  discover 
which  of  the  four  elements  exists  in  too  large  a 
proportion  in  the  system  of  a  suffering  person  ;  and 
when  this  has  been  discovered,  a  charm  (nushka) 
is  drawn  up,  which,  swallowed  or  worn  next  to 
the  skin,  will  enable  the  patient  to  get  rid  of  the 
superabundant  element. 

1  Sales'  Koran.  Chap,  xli,  p.  356,  n. 


144  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

The  Dervishes  are  also  often  had  recourse  to  for 
the  recovery  of  lost  or  stolen  property.  Sheikh  AH, 
the  head  of  the  Bektashi  fraternity  at  Salonica 
before  mentioned,^  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  for 
success  in  this  particular  line  of  his  profession.  His 
mode  of  procedure  was  to  ascertain  the  names  of 
all  the  persons  who  had  visited  a  house  where  any 
such  loss  had  been  sustained  and  visit  each  in  turn. 
While  gossiping  about  the  event  he  would  let  drop 
a  hint  that  the  guilty  person  would  be  made  the 
object  of  some  magical  charm  if  he  did  not  at  once 
restore  the  property  to  its  owner ;  and,  superstitious 
fear  getting  the  better  of  cupidity,  the  lost  article 
would  usually  be  recovered  as  mysteriously  as  it 
had  disappeared.  The  skill  of  this  Dervish  as  an 
interpreter  of  dreams  was  also  said  to  rival  that  of 
a  famous  Turkish  witch  in  the  city.  I  happened  on 
the  occasion  of  one  of  his  visits  to  have  had  my  sleep 
disturbed  on  the  previous  night  by  a  dream  of 
green  snakes,  and  took  the  opportunity  of  asking 
for  his  explanation  of  it.  Divining,  no  doubt,  that 
I  was  not  of  a  credulous  or  superstitious  turn  of 
mind,  he  merely  replied,  with  a  shrug  of  the  shoulders 
and  a  graceful  gesture  of  the  hands,  "  Eyei  olsoun!  " 
(May  it  be  good). 

Dervishes  figure  not  infrequently  in  Oriental 
folk-tales,  both  Moslem  and  Christian.  Everyone  is 
acquainted  with  the  "  One-eyed  Kalender  "  of  the 
Thousand  Nights  and  a  Night,  though  few,  perhaps, 
recognise  in  the  bearer  of  that  appellation  a  wandering 

^  Above,  p.  40. 


SURVIVALS  OF  PAGANISM  145 

Dervish.  In  Greek  folk -tale,  Dervishes  are  often 
credited  with  the  possession  of  magical  objects  such 
as  cups  that  are  instantly  filled  with  whatever  the 
owner  may  desire ;  knives  that  slay  man  or  beast 
at  his  command  ;  reed-flutes,  the  sound  of  which 
brings  the  dead  to  life  ;  turbans  of  invisibility,  etc., 
etc.^  Stories  are  also  current  of  secret  hoards  of 
wealth  wrested  by  Dervish  Sheikhs,  deeply  versed  in 
magic,  from  the  guardianship  of  Djins  who  had 
possessed  them  from  time  immemorial  in  their 
subterranean  palaces. 

*  Compare,  for  instance,  Greek  Folk-poesy,  "  The  Story 
of  the  Soothsayer,"  Vol.  II,  p.  230. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE  ACTS   OF  THE   ADEPTS 

"  A  Saint  is  aware  of  every  thought  of  the  King's  heart, 
and  of  every  secret  on  earth  or  in  heaven." — Saying  of 
Jelalu-'d-D!n. 

As  mentioned  in  previous  chapters,  the  mental  and 
physical  condition  necessary  for  the  manifestation 
of  their  abnormal  powers  is  termed  by  the  Dervishes 
Hal,  a  word  simply  signifying  ''  state."  There 
appear,  however,  to  be  two  distinct  descriptions 
of  Hal,  induced  by  methods  of  a  totally  opposite 
character,  and  resulting  in  powers  which  differ  in 
a  corresponding  degree. 

The  first  appears  to  be  of  a  merely  temporary 
nature,  and  is  found  only  among  certain  Orders 
such  as  the  Rufa'i  {"  Howling  Dervishes  ")  during 
their  religious  exercises  performed  collectively  in 
the  hall  of  their  Tekkeh.  As  has  been  seen  in  the 
chapter  on  the  '*  Religious  Exercises,*'  the  devotees, 
by  a  contagious  emulation,  work  themselves  and 
each  other  into  an  abnormal  state  of  agitation,  both 
mental  and  physical,  during  which  they  inflict  upon 
themselves  injuries  which,  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions, would  be  dangerous,  if  not  fatal,  but  which, 
when  inflicted  while  they  are  in  this  strange  state 
of  excitement,  are,  in  many  cases,  not  even  followed 
by  the  loss  of  a  drop  of  blood,  and  are  mysteriously 
and  speedily  healed  by  the  breath  and  spittle  of 

146 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS  147 

the  Sheikh.  That  mental  states  are  contagious  we 
have,  I  think,  abundant  evidence  in  cases  of  panic, 
when  persons,  without  having  the  faintest  idea  of 
the  cause,  will  excitedly  join  in  the  general  rush  ; 
and  also  in  so-called  Christian  "  Revivals  "—instances 
of  which  are,  perhaps,  more  common  in  America 
than  elsewhere,  and  especially  among  the  excit- 
able negro  population,  when,  during  an  enthusiastic 
**  camp  meeting,"  many  persons  become  perfectly 
frenzied  with  religious  excitement.  ^ 

The  dance  {Devr)  of  the  Mevlevi  Dervishes  also 
produces  a  species  of  Hal.  It  would  indeed  be 
difficult  to  account  otherwise  for  the  ability  of 
some  twenty  men  and  youths  to  spin  round  with 
closed  eyes  and  outstretched  arms  within  a  limited 
circle  for  the  space  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes 
without  either  coming  into  coUision  with  each  other, 
or  showing  any  signs  of  giddiness — a  scarcely 
possible  feat  under  ordinary  conditions. 

The  second  description  of  Hal,  which  appears  to 
be  permanent,  or,  at  least,  assumable  at  will,  is 
attained  only  by  those  Dervishes  who,  through  long 
and  fervent  contemplation  of  the  Deity,  have 
arrived  at  the  Fourth,  or  highest  degree,  that  of 
"  Union  with  Allah."  Sheikhs  and  Dervishes  of 
superior  grade,   belonging  to  all  Orders,   whether 

^  A  curious  illustration  of  this  occurred  a  few  years  ago 
in  Ottawa,  where  a  series  of  revivalist  services  resulted, 
according  to  the  Montreal  Star,  in  the  "  conversion  "  of 
the  Premier  of  the  Dominion  and  his  lady,  though  his 
name  "  has  so  long  been  the  synonym  of  iniquity  in  many 
worthy  minds." 


148  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

Vocative  or  Contemplative,  are  equally  credited 
with  ability  to  acquire  this  degree  of  sanctity  ;  and 
on  attaining  it  they  become  endowed  with  various 
spiritual  and  superhuman  powers.  Among  these 
may  be  named  what  is  termed  the  "  Power  of  the 
Will,"  thought-reading,  the  gift  of  prophecy, 
knowledge  of  what  is  happening  afar  off,  and  power 
to  influence  the  event,  as  also  ability  to  appear  in 
person  at  great  distances  for  the  help  of  friends  or  the 
confusion  of  enemies,  and  miracle-working  generally. 
These  wonderful  gifts  can,  it  is  beheved,  be  trans- 
mitted by  a  Sheikh,  with  his  mantle  of  office,  to  the 
disciple  who  shall  prove  himself  by  his  rapid  advance 
on  the  Mystic  Path  to  be  a  worthy  recipient  of  them, 
even  as  Elijah  bestowed  his  mantle  on  Elisha  and 
endowed  him  with  his  own  miraculous  powers. 
Instances  of  the  exercise  of  the  Power  of  the  Will  are 
to  be  found  in  the  biography  of  every  Dervish  of 
renown.  In  some  cases  the  subject  is  conscious  of 
the  influence  under  which  he  is  acting,  in  others  he 
is  quite  unaware  of  it,  as  in  the  following  incident 
related  by  the  learned  Siifi,  Mohammed  Baha-'d-Din, 
of  his  spiritual  Master  : — 

"  In  my  youth  I  was  ever  with  Our  Lord  (Mevlana) 
Sa'ed  ed  Din  of  Kashgar  at  Hereed.  It  happened 
one  day,  as  we  were  walking  out  together,  that  we 
came  upon  a  number  of  the  people  of  the  place 
who  were  engaged  in  the  exercise  of  wrestling.  We 
agreed  together  to  aid  one  of  the  wrestlers  so  that 
he  might  throw  his  opponent,  and  afterwards  to 
change  our  design  in  favour  of  the  discomfited  one. 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         149 

So  we  stopped  as  if  to  look  on,  and  as  we  looked, 
gave  the  full  influence  of  our  united  wills  to  one 
individual,  and  he  was  immediately  able  to  vanquish 
the  other.  Each  person  we  chose  in  turn  vanquished 
his  opponent,  and  the  power  of  our  wills  was  thus 
clearly  manifested."  ^ 

This  Sheikh  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  wars 
of  his  time  between  the  Sultans  of  Bokhara  and 
Samarcand ;  and  by  means  of  his  wonderful  powers 
is  held  to  have  greatly  influenced  their  history. 
The  monarch  who  took  the  precaution  of  securing 
his  goodwill  was  invariably  victorious  ;  while  those 
who  disdained  his  assistance  met  with  loss  and 
disaster ;  and  many  persons  who  had  wronged  the 
Sheikh  or  his  friends  in  the  troubled  times  in  which 
he  lived  felt  the  weight  of  his  spiritual  displeasure. 
Some  even  fell  sick  and  died,  or  recovered  only  after 
making  full  confession  and  restitution,  and  obtaining 
his  pardon  and  intercession  with  Allah  on  their 
behalf.  It  was  said  that  he  could  hold  converse 
\vith  his  disciples  and  friends  at  a  great  distance, 
and  their  appeals  to  him  were  always  heard  and 
answered. 

Over  the  minds  of  his  followers  Sheikh  Sa'ed-'d- 
Din  is  said  to  have  exercised  a  peculiar  power.  He 
could  influence  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  throw 
them  at  will  into  a  species  of  trance  during  which 
they  could  remember  no  single  event  of  their  past 
lives,  nor  anything  they  had  previously  learnt ;  and 
in  this  state  they  would  remain  until  their  Master 

1  J.  P.  Brown,  The  Dervishes. 
II — (2119) 


150  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

chose  to  restore  to  them  the  possession  of  their 
ordinary  faculties.  This  Power  of  the  Will  would 
appear  to  be  but  a  kind  of  mesmeric  influence, 
intensified,  perhaps,  by  the  complete  mental  sub- 
ordination of  a  disciple  to  his  spiritual  guide.  "Let 
your  Murshid  be  always  present  to  your  mind,  what- 
ever you  are  doing  or  saying,"  is  a  primary  obliga- 
tion. And  when  we  consider  that,  in  addition 
to  this  state  of  constant  mental  subjection,  the 
body  of  the  Murid  is  enfeebled  by  fasting  and  his 
mind  fatigued  by  long  vigils  and  protracted  devo- 
tions, while  his  imagination  is  at  the  same  time 
fully  impressed  with  the  belief  that  his  Superior  is 
really  in  possession  of  such  powers,  it  is  not  difficult 
to  understand  that  a  remarkable  ascendancy  can 
be  obtained  by  a  Sheikh  over  his  disciples.  Nothing 
indeed  could  be  better  adapted  to  induce  suscepti- 
bility to  hypnotic  influences  than  the  discipline  to 
which  a  Dervish  is  subjected  during  his  novitiate. 
And  having  felt  in  his  own  person  the  potency  of 
the  spell  of  his  Murshid,  he  will  easily  be  led  to 
credit  him  with  the  faculty  of  similarly  influencing 
others. 

Not  individuals  only,  however,  but  crowds  have 
been  known  to  be  affected  in  this  way  by  eminent 
Dervishes  ;  and  according  to  Moslem  legend,  even 
opposing  armies  have  been  caused  to  desist  from 
hostilities,  completely  subdued  by  the  pacificatory 
spell  thrown  over  them  by  some  "  Man  of  Peace," 
who  has  also  compelled  their  leaders  to  sign  treaties 
drawn  up  by  himself.     The  writings  of  the  Sufis 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         151 

teem  with  traditions  and  anecdotes  recording  the 
marvellous  spiritual  attainments  of  those  Higher 
Mystics,  and  of  the  resulting  abnormal  powers 
exercised  by  them.  Some  of  these  biographies  have 
been  translated  into  European  languages,  but  of 
others  fragments  only  are  available. 

Many  strange  stories  are  related  of  Abdul  Kadr 
of  Ghilan,  already  mentioned  as  the  founder  of 
the  Kadiri  Order.  The  poet  Sadi  records  in  his 
"  Gulistdn "  that  when  visiting  the  sanctuary  of 
the  Ka'aba,  the  great  Sheikh  laid  his  face  on  the 
pebbled  pavement  and  prayed  :  "  O  Lord  !  pardon 
me ;  but  if  I  am  deserving  of  punishment,  raise 
me  up  at  the  resurrection  blind,  that  I  may  not  be 
ashamed  in  the  sight  of  the  righteous."  And 
Sir  John  Malcolm  gives  the  following  legend, 
translated  by  him  from  a  Persian  MS.,  concerning 
this  famous  Sheikh:  *'His  mother  declared  that 
when  he  was  at  the  breast,  he  never  tasted  milk 
(?  from  sunrise  to  sunset)  during  the  holy  month 
of  Ramazan  ;  and  in  one  of  his  works  he  gives  this 
account  of  himself  :  '  The  day  before  the  feast  of 
Araf,  I  went  out  into  the  fields  and  laid  hold  of  the 
tail  of  a  cow,  which  turned  round  and  exclaimed, 
"  0  Abdul  Kadr,  am  I  not  that  which  thou  hast 
created  me  ?  "  I  returned  home  and  mounted  to 
the  terrace  of  my  house  :  I  saw  all  the  pilgrims 
standing  at  the  mountain  of  Araf  (it  at  Mekka.  I 
went  and  told  my  mother  that  I  must  dedicate 
myself  to  God  :  I  wished  to  proceed  to  Bagdad  to 
obtain  knowledge.     I  informed  her  of  what  I  had 


152  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

seen,  and  she  wept.  Then,  taking  out  eighty  deenars, 
she  told  me  that,  as  I  had  a  brother,  half  of  that 
was  all  my  inheritance.  She  made  me  swear  when 
she  gave  it  to  me,  never  to  tell  a  lie  ;  and  then 
bade  me  farewell,  exclaiming,  "  Go,  my  son,  I  give 
thee  to  God.  We  shall  not  meet  again  until  the 
Day  of  Judgment !  "  I  went  on  well  till  I  came  to 
Hamadan,  when  our  Kaffilah  (caravan)  was  plundered 
by  forty  horsemen.  One  fellow  asked  me  what  I  had 
got.  ''  Forty  deenars/'  I  said,  "  are  sewed  under  my 
garment."  The  fellow  laughed,  thinking,  no  doubt, 
I  was  joking  him.  ''What  have  you  got?'*  asked 
another.  I  gave  him  the  same  answer.  When 
they  were  dividing  the  spoil,  I  was  called  to  an 
eminence  where  their  chief  stood.  "  What  property 
have  you,  my  Httle  fellow  ?  "  said  he.  ''I  have 
told  two  of  your  people  already,"  I  rephed,  **  that 
I  have  forty  deenars  sewed  up  carefully  in  my 
clothes."  He  desired  them  to  be  ripped  open,  and 
found  my  money.  "  And  how  came  you,"  he  asked 
with  surprise,  ''  to  declare  so  openly  what  has  been 
so  carefully  hidden  ? "  *'  Because,"  I  replied,  "  I  will 
not  be  false  to  my  mother  whom  I  have  promised 
that  I  will  never  tell  a  lie."  ''  Child,"  said  the 
robber,  "  hast  thou  such  a  sense  of  thy  duty  to  thy 
mother  at  thy  years  ;  and  am  I  insensible,  at  my 
age,  of  the  duty  I  owe  my  God  ?  Give  me  thy  hand, 
innocent  boy,"  he  continued,  '*  that  I  may  swear 
repentance  on  it."  He  did  so.  His  followers  were 
all  alike  touched  with  the  scene.  ''  Thou  hast  been 
our  leader  in  guilt,"  said  they  to  the  chief,  "  be  the 


CITY   GATE    CALLED   THE    MEVLEVI-HANE,    STAMBOUL 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         153 

same  in  the  path  of  virtue,"  and  instantly  at  his 
order  they  made  restitution  of  their  spoil,  and  vowed 
repentance  on  my  hand.*"  ^ 

Abdul  Kadr  arrived  in  Bagdad  about  1085,  and, 
consequently,  when  this  event  happened,  he  must 
have  been  about  seventeen  years  of  age.  He  does 
not,  however,  appear  to  have  begun  his  public 
lectures  until  he  had  reached  his  fiftieth  year.  Not 
only  Sufi  writers,  but  eminent  Sunni,  or  orthodox 
Moslem  authorities,  record  many  of  his  miracles. 
God  granted  all  his  requests,  and  the  Divine  venge- 
ance fell  on  all  those  who  wronged  him.  He  himself 
gives  the  following  account  of  the  fast  he  underwent 
during  his  probation  : — 

**  I  was  eleven  years  in  a  tower,  and  when  there 
I  vowed  to  God  that  I  would  neither  eat  nor  drink 
until  some  one  compelled  me  to  do  so.  I  maintained 
my  fast  for  forty  days,  after  which  a  person  brought 
me  a  little  meat,  put  it  before  me,  and  went  away. 
My  life  was  nearly  springing  out  of  me  at  the  sight 
of  the  victuals,  but  I  refrained  ;  and  I  heard  a 
voice  from  within  me  call  out,  '  I  am  hungry,  I  am 
hungry  ! '  At  that  moment  Sheikh  Abu  Seyyid 
Mukzoomi  (a  celebrated  Siifi)  passed,  and,  hearing 
the  voice,  exclaimed,  '  What  is  that  ?  '  '  It  is  my 
mortal  part,'  I  replied,  *  but  the  soul  is  yet  firm, 
and  awaits  the  result.'  '  Come  to  my  house,'  he 
said,  and  went  away.  I  resolved,  however,  to  fulfil 
my  vow,  and  remained  where  I  was  ;    but  Ehas  ^ 

1   Hist,  of  Persia.  Vol.  II,  p.  286,  n. 
*  See  above,  p.  22. 


154  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

came  and  told  me  to  follow  the  Seyyid,  whom  I 
found  at  his  door  awaiting  me.  '  You  would  not 
comply  with  my  wish,'  said  he,  *  until  it  was  enforced 
by  Elias.'  After  this  he  gave  me  meat  and  drink 
in  plenty,  and  then  invested  me  with  a  khirka 
(mantle)  and  I  became  his  confirmed  friend  and 
companion."^ 

Many  and  wonderful  are  the  legends  which  have 
gathered  round  the  name  of  the  great  mystic  poet, 
Jelalu-'d-Din.  The  Acts  of  the  Adepts,  compiled 
by  Efiaki  in  the  fourteenth  century,  contains 
some  hundreds  of  anecdotes  concerning  Jelal,  his 
family,  friends,  and  followers,  most  of  which  are 
narratives  of  supernatural  actions  performed  by 
living  or  dead  Dervishes,  male  or  female,  or  of  some 
remarkable  event  connected  with  them. 

Baha-'d-Din  Veled,  the  father  of  Jelalu-'d-Din, 
was  hardly  less  famous  among  the  Mystics  of  the 
thirteenth  century  than  was  his  illustrious  son  ;  and 
besides  being  closely  related  to  the  reigning  dynasty 
of  Khorassan,  was  able  to  trace  his  descent  to  Abii 
Bekr,  the  **  Commander  of  the  Faithful,"  and  uncle 
of  the  Prophet.  In  virtue  of  his  learning  and  mystic 
piety,  Baha-'d-Din  was  held  in  such  high  estimation 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital,  Balkh,  as  to 
excite  the  jealous  animosity  of  the  Sultan's  courtiers, 
who  accused  him  of  aspiring  to  the  throne.  He 
accordingly  quitted  the  city  with  a  following  of 
about  forty  souls,  after  delivering  in  the  great 
mosque  a  public  address  in  which  he  foretold  the 

1  Malcolm,  Hist,  of  Persia,  Vol.  II,  p.  286,  n. 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         155 

advent  of  the  Moguls  and  the  subversion  of  the 
country.  Arrived  at  Bagdad,  he  was  received  with 
great  honour  by  the  Khahf,  but  refused  the  costly 
gifts  he  would  have  bestowed  upon  him.  Preaching 
in  the  mosque,  he  dared  to  reprove  the  monarch  to 
his  face  for  his  evil  course  of  life,  and  foretold  that 
he  would  be  slain  by  the  Moguls  under  circumstances 
of  great  ignominy  and  cruelty.  During  Baha-'d- 
Din's  sojourn  at  Bagdad  news  came  of  the  conquest 
of  Balkh ;  he  again  set  out  on  his  travels,  and,  after 
various  wanderings,  was  finally  invited  to  Konieh 
by  the  Seljuk  Sultan,  Ala-'d-Din,  who  had  made 
that  city  his  capital.  Here  Baha-'d-Din  was  warmly 
welcomed  and  liberally  entertained  by  this  prince, 
under  whose  auspices  he  established  a  college,  and 
from  whom  he  received  the  honourable  title  of 
"  Sultan  of  Learned  Men  "  (Sultan  'l-Ulemd). 

Numerous  stories  are  related  of  the  wonderful 
spiritual  gifts  possessed  by  this  illustrious  Teacher, 
and  of  the  great  influence  he  exercised  over  others, 
not  only  during  his  lifetime,  but  also  after  death. 
One  of  these  relates  that  when  Sultan  Ala'u-'d-Din 
had  fortified  Konieh,  he  invited  Baha  Veled  to 
mount  to  the  terraced  roof  of  the  palace,  thence  to 
survey  the  walls  and  towers.  After  this  inspection 
Baha  remarked  to  the  Sultan,  "  Against  torrents, 
and  against  the  horsemen  of  the  enemy,  thou  hast 
raised  a  goodly  defence.  But  what  protection  hast 
thou  built  against  those  unseen  arrows,  the  sighs 
and  moans  of  the  oppressed,  which  overleap  a 
thousand     walls     and     sweep     whole    worlds    to 


156  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

destruction  ?  Go  to,  now !  strive  to  acquire  the 
blessings  of  thy  subjects.  These  are  a  stronghold 
compared  to  which  the  walls  and  turrets  of  the 
strongest  castles  are  as  nothing."  ^ 

Another  anecdote  says  that  shortly  after  the 
death  of  Baha-'d-Din,  the  Sultan  of  Kharism, 
Jelalii-'d-Din  Shah,  arrived  on  the  borders  of  Asia 
Minor  with  a  great  army.  On  hearing  this  alarming 
news,  the  Sultan  of  Konieh  went  to  pray  at  the 
tomb  of  the  deceased  Sheikh,  and  then  prepared  to 
meet  the  enemy  who  were  encamped  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Erzeriim.  Disguising  himself,  he  set 
out  with  a  few  followers  to  reconnoitre,  and  actually 
entered  the  enemy's  camp.  At  midnight  the  sainted 
Sheikh  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream  and  warned  him 
to  fly.  The  Sultan  awoke,  but  attaching  no  import- 
ance to  the  warning,  went  to  sleep  again.  The 
Saint  now  appeared  a  second  time.  Ala-'d-Din  saw 
himself  seated  on  his  throne,  and  the  Saint 
approaching  him  smote  him  on  the  breast  with  his 
staff,  saying  angrily,  "  Why  sleepest  thou  ?  Arise  !  " 
So  the  Sultan  arose,  got  together  his  people  and 
horses,  and  stole  from  the  camp.  Not  long  after- 
wards the  two  armies  engaged ;  the  Sultan  of 
Konieh  came  off  victorious  ;  and  in  all  subsequent 
difhculties  had  recourse  to  the  powerful  aid  of 
the  Saint  whom  he  had  in  life  honoured  and 
befriended. 

Jelalii-'d-Din,  who  had  studied  under  the  most 
eminent  teachers  of  Aleppo  and  Damascus,  succeeded 

^  Acts  of  the  Adepts,  Redhouse's  translation,  p.  10. 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         157 

his  father  as  Director  of  the  College  at  Konieh,  and 
also  in  the  title  of  *'  Sultan  of  Learned  Men."  The 
high  reputation  for  piety  and  learning  that  the 
young  scholar  had  already  acquired  gained  for  him 
the  devotion  of  his  father's  disciples  ;  and  in  addition 
to  these  he  soon  gathered  around  him  four  hundred 
enthusiastic  students  by  whom  he  was  designated 
Mevldna  (Our  Lord),  a  title  from  which,  as  above 
mentioned,  the  Order  founded  by  him  took  its  name. 
Eflaki  relates  the  following  incident  as  illustrative 
of  the  close  friendship  and  devotion  to  each  other 
of  these  Siifi  Saints.  An  emdnent  Sheikh,  the  Seyyid 
Burha-nu-'d  Din^  had  been  a  pupil  of  BSha-'d-Din 
during  his  residence  at  Balkh.  On  his  master's 
departure  from  that  city,  the  Seyyid  went  to  Termiz, 
and,  after  living  some  time  there  as  a  recluse,  he 
began  to  lecture  publicly.  During  one  of  his  dis- 
courses he  suddenly  stopped  and  cried  out  in  a 
tone  of  anguish,  accompanied  by  floods  of  tears  : 
**  Alas  !  my  Master  has  passed  away  from  this 
Tabernacle  of  Dust  to  the  Abode  of  Sincerity  1  " 
His  words  and  the  time  of  their  utterance  were 
noted  down,  and  were  subsequently  found  to 
correspond  exactly  with  the  moment  of  Baha 
Veled's  death.  When  the  disciples  at  Termiz  had 
mourned  forty  days  for  the  great  Teacher,  the  Seyyid 
said  to  them,  '*  The  son  of  my  master,  Jelalu-'d-Din 
Mohammed,  is  left  alone  and  is  wishing  to  see  me. 

1  This  Saint,  says  Eflaki,  was  popularly  known  as 
Sirr-Dan,  "  The  Confidant,"  a  title  signifying  "  one 
acquainted  with  secrets  or  mysteries." 


158  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

I  must  go  to  the  land  of  Rum,  and  deliver  over  to 
him  the  trust  which  my  Teacher  confided  to  my 
safe  keeping/' 

On  arriving  at  Konieh,  the  Seyyid  was  so  much 
delighted  with  the  discourse  of  Jelal,  that  he  kissed 
the  soles  of  his  feet,  exclaiming,  ''  A  hundred  fold 
hast  thou  surpassed  thy  father  in  all  knowledge  of 
the  Humanities  ;  but  he  was  versed  also  in  that 
spiritual  knowledge  which  is  attained  only  through 
silent  contemplation  and  through  ecstasy.  From 
this  day  forward  my  aim  shall  be  to  instruct  thee  in 
that  knowledge — the  knowledge  possessed  by  the 
Prophets  and  Saints  and  which  we  term  The  Science 
of  Divine  Intuition.  This  is  the  science  spoken  of 
by  Allah  :  *  We  have  taught  him  a  science  from 
within  Us.'  ^  This  knowledge  did  I  acquire  from 
my  Teacher  ;  do  thou  receive  it  from  me,  and  thus 
become  the  heir  of  thy  father  in  things  spiritual  as 
well  as  in  things  temporal."  JelSl  took  the  Seyyid 
to  his  College,  and  for  nine  years  was  his  pupil  in 
mystic  lore.  ^ 

The  following  story  is  told  of  Jelal's  student 
days.  While  he  was  pursuing  his  studies  at  Aleppo, 
the  superior  treatment  he  received  from  the  pro- 
fessor roused  the  jealousy  of  some  of  his  fellow 
students,  who  complained  to  the  governor  that 
Jelal  was  immoral,  as  he  was  in  the  habit  of  quitting 
his  cell  at  midnight  for  some  unknown  purpose. 
The  governor  resolved  to  see  and  judge  for  himself ; 

*  Koran  xviii,  64. 

2  Acts  of  the  Adepts,  pp.  14-15. 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         159 

he  therefore  hid  himself  in  the  college  porter's 
lodge. 

At  midnight  JelSl  came  forth,  and  went  straight 
to  the  locked  gate  of  the  college,  watched  by  the 
governor.  The  gate  flew  open  ;  and  Jelal,  followed 
at  a  distance  by  the  governor,  went  through  the 
streets  to  the  locked  city  gate.  This,  too,  opened 
of  itself  ;  and  again  both  passed  through.  They 
went  on,  and  came  to  the  tomb  of  Abraham 
(at  Hebron,  about  350  miles  distant).  There  a 
domed  edifice  was  seen,  filled  with  a  large  company 
of  forms  in  green  raiment,  who  came  forth  to  meet 
Jelal,  and  conducted  him  into  the  building.  The 
governor  hereupon  lost  his  senses  through  fright, 
and  did  not  recover  until  after  the  sun  had  risen. 
He  could  now  see  neither  edifice  nor  human  being. 
He  wandered  about  on  a  trackless  waste  for  three 
days  and  nights,  and  at  length  sank  under  his 
sufferings. 

Meanwhile  the  porter  of  the  college  had  given 
intelligence  of  the  governor's  pursuit  after  Jelal. 
When  his  officers  found  that  he  did  not  return,  they 
sent  a  company  of  soldiers  to  seek  him.  These,  on 
the  second  day,  were  met  by  Jelal,  who  told  them 
where  they  would  find  their  master.  Late  on  the 
next  day  they  came  up  with  the  governor,  found 
him  nearly  dead,  and  brought  him  home.  This 
dignitary  was  so  impressed  by  the  event  that  he 
became  a  sincere  admirer  and  devoted  disciple  of 
Jelal.  1 

J  Acts  of  ths  Adepts,  p.  21. 


160  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

The  two  following  anecdotes  also  illustrate  the 
faculty  ascribed  to  the  higher  Mystics  of  trans- 
porting themselves  at  will  to  great  distances. 

A  certain  rich  merchant  of  Konieh,  a  disciple,  as 
was  also  his  wife,  of  Jelal,  went  to  Mekka  one  year 
for  the  pilgrimage.  On  the  day  when  the  victims 
are  slaughtered,  ^  the  lady  had  a  dish  of  sweetmeat 
prepared,  and  sent  some  of  it  in  a  china  bowl  to 
Jelal,  to  be  eaten  at  dinner.  ^  She  made  the  request 
that,  when  he  partook  of  the  food,  he  would  favour 
her  absent  husband  with  his  remembrance,  his 
prayers,  and  his  blessing.  Jelal  invited  his  disciples 
to  the  feast,  and  all  ate  of  the  lady's  sweetmeat  to 
repletion.  But  the  bowl  still  remained  full.  Jelal 
then  said,  "  Oh,  he,  too,  must  partake  of  it."  He 
took  the  bowl,  ascended  to  the  terraced  roof  of  the 
college  with  it,  returning  immediately  empty  handed. 
His  friends  asked  him  what  he  had  done  with  the 
bowl  and  the  food.  **  I  have  handed  them,"  said 
Jelal,  *'  to  the  lady's  husband,  whose  property  they 
are."  The  company  were  puzzled  by  his  words 
and  conduct.  In  due  course  of  time,  when  the 
pilgrims  returned  to  Konieh,  out  of  the  baggage  of 
the  merchant  the  china  bowl  was  produced,  and 
sent  in  to  the  astonished  lady,  who  enquired  of  her 
husband  how  he  had  become  possessed  of  that 
identical  dish.  He  replied,  "  Ah  !  I  am  also  at  a 
loss  to  know  how  it  happened.     But  on  the  eve  of 

1  The  Qurban  Bairam,  or  annual  sacrifice,  which  takes 
place  while  the  pilgrims  are  at  Mekka. 

2  This  is  a  common  custom  in  the  East. 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         161 

the  slaughter  of  the  victims,  I  was  seated  in  my 
tent,  at  Arafat,  with  a  company  of  other  pilgrims, 
when  an  arm  was  projected  into  the  tent,  and  placed 
this  dish  before  me,  filled  with  sweetmeat.  I  sent 
out  servants  to  see  who  had  brought  it  to  me,  but 
no  one  was  found."  ^ 

A  company  of  pilgrims  arrived  one  year  at 
Konieh  on  the  return  journey  from  Mekka,  and  after 
visiting  all  the  famous  men  of  the  city  they  were 
conducted  to  Jelal's  College.  On  seeing  him  seated 
there,  they  all  exclaimed  and  fainted  away.  When 
they  were  recovered,  Jelal  began  to  offer  excuses, 
saying  to  them,  "  I  fear  you  have  been  deceived, 
either  by  an  imposter,  or  by  some  person  resembhng 
me  in  feature."  The  pilgrims,  however,  one  and 
all  objected.  "  Why  talks  he  thus  ?  "  they  said  to 
one  another.  "  Why  strive  to  make  us  doubt  our 
eyes  ?  By  the  God  of  heaven  and  earth,  he  was 
with  us  in  person,  habited  in  the  very  dress  he  now 
wears,  when  we  assumed  the  pilgrim  garb  at  Mekka. 
He  perfoimed  with  us  all  the  ceremonies  of  the 
pilgrimage  there,  and  at  Arafat.  He  visited  with 
us  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet  at  Medina,  though  he 
never  once  ate  or  drank  with  us."  ^ 

For  further  examples  of  the  marvellous  acts  of 
Jelalu-'d-Din  as  recorded  by  Efiaki,  I  must  refer 
the  curious  reader  to  the  work  itself. 

Perhaps  the  most  famous  among  the  Saints  of 
the  Turkish  Conquest  was  Hadji  Bektash — "  Bek- 
tash  the  Pilgrim  " — before  mentioned.    He  was  a  man 

1  Acts  of  the  Adepts,  p.  62.  2  j^^^^^  p^  go. 


162  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

of  noble  birth  and  great  learning,  his  father  having 
been  the  Seyyid  Ibrahim  Mokerrem  of  Khorassan. 
While  yet  a  boy,  he  is  said  to  have  been  distinguished 
for  his  devotion,  never  mixing  with  companions  of 
his  own  age  ;  and  evinced  in  early  youth  an  aver- 
sion to  all  worldly  pursuits.  His  education  was 
entrusted  to  the  Sage,  Lokman,  one  of  the  disciples 
of  Achmet  Youssouf,  the  Chief  of  the  Sheikhs  of 
Turkestan,  and  by  him  Hadji  Bektash  was  "  in- 
structed in  all  the  exoteric  and  esoteric  sciences.'* 
Lokman  bestowed  on  this  favourite  pupil  the 
mantle  of  the  Imam  Jafer,  which  he  had  himself 
received  from  Achmet  Youssouf.  According  to  his 
biographers,  Hadji  Bektash  declined  all  the  digni- 
ties of  ered  him  by  his  father,  "  who  died  a  prince 
in  Khorassan,"  and  devoted  himself  to  a  life  of 
seclusion.  Forty  years  were  passed  by  this  saintly 
man  in  study,  fasting,  and  prayer,  until  he  at  length 
arrived  at  such  a  degree  of  perfection  that  his  soul 
during  sleep,  left  his  body  and  entered  the  World 
of  Spirits,  and  he  became  *'  filled  with  Mystic 
Science  and  Divine  Knowledge."  In  obedience  to 
the  spiritually  received  command  of  Achmet 
Youssouf  he  went  with  Mohammed  Bokhara  and 
seven  hundred  Dervishes  and  other  pious  men  and 
saints  into  Asia  Minor  in  the  train  of  the  conquering 
Orchan. 

It  appears  to  be  a  point  of  honour  with  a  Dervish 
to  maintain  that  the  Order  of  which  he  is  a  member 
is  the  most  important  of  all  the  religious  sects  of 
Islam,  and  that  its  Founder  is  the  greatest  and 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS  163 

holiest  of  all  Pirs.  The  legends  related  of  Hadji 
Bektash  by  his  followers,  however,  go  far  to  establish 
his  supremacy  over  all  rival  Saints.  Of  these  the 
following  may  serve  as  a  specimen. 

Hadji  Bektash  was  one  day  sitting  with  some  of 
his  followers  on  a  wall,  when  they  saw  a  rival 
Dervish  advancing  towards  them,  mounted  on  a 
roaring  lion,  and  holding  in  his  hand  as  a  whip,  a 
writhing  serpent  with  which  he  chastised  his  steed. 
The  disciples,  who  had  never  before  beheld  such  a 
sight,  marvelled  greatly  ;  but  their  Sheikh  calmly 
observed,  *'  My  brethren,  there  is  little  merit  in 
being  able  to  ride  upon  a  lion  ;  I  will  show  you  a 
more  wonderful  thing.  This  wall  on  which  we  are 
sitting  shall  advance  and  bar  the  further  progress 
of  yon  wild  beast  and  his  rider."  The  Dervishes 
immediately  found  that  they  were  being  carried 
forward  by  the  wall  towards  the  lion,  whose  rider 
was  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  superior  spiritual 
rank  of  Hadji  Bekt^h.  Evliya  Effendi  relates  in 
his  *' Travels"  that  this  wall,  which  was  still  in  his 
day  of  large  proportions,  and  even  the  identical 
spot  on  which  the  Saint  was  seated  when  he  per- 
formed the  miracle,  was  pointed  out  to  him  at 
Sari-beg  in  Asia  Minor. 

Michelet  has  remarked,  with  reference  to  the 
legends  which  have  collected  round  the  Saints  of 
the  Christian  Calendar,  that  "  the  monks  wrote 
them,  but  the  people  were  their  authors."^    And 

^  "  Les  Moines  les  ecrivjrent,  mais  le  peuple  les  faisait." 
La  Sorciere,  p.  15. 


164  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

the  same  may  be  said  of  most  of  the  extravagant 
stories  related  of  Dervish  Saints.  In  the  following 
story,  for  instance,  the  Moslem  Saint,  Mohammed 
Bokhara,  is  made  the  hero  of  adventures  evidently 
borrowed  from  a  widespread  Eastern  folktale. 

This  Mohammed  Bokhara,  also  called  Sari  Saltik 
and  Kilgra  Sultan,  was  one  of  the  fighting  saints 
of  the  Ottoman  conquest,  and  a  favourite  disciple 
of  Hadji  Bektash.  After  the  conquest  of  Broussa 
by  Sultan  Orchan  (1326),  the  Master  bestowed  on 
his  disciple  the  insignia  of  the  Order — a  wooden 
sword,  a  sheepskin  mat,  a  banner,  drum,  and  horn — 
and  despatched  him  on  a  mission  to  the  Unbelievers. 
The  Saint  and  his  seventy  followers  spread  their 
sheepskins  on  the  sea  and  sailed  away,  "  with  drums 
beating  and  banners  flying,  from  Roumelia  to  the 
Crimea,  from  Muscovy  to  Poland."  At  Dantzic, 
Sari  Saltik  had  an  interview  with  Saint  Nikola  the 
Patriarch,  whom  he  slew.  Then,  adopting  his  name 
and  dress,  he,  as  the  Patriarch,  travelled  about 
Europe  for  some  years,  during  which  time  he  con- 
verted many  thousands  to  the  faith  of  Islam.  The 
King  of  the  Dobrudja,  after  listening  to  the  preaching 
of  the  Saint,  desired  of  him  a  miracle  in  confirma- 
tion of  his  mission.  There  happened  to  be  then 
in  the  Dobrudja  a  terrible  seven-headed  Dragon, 
and  the  King's  two  daughters  were  doomed  to  be 
devoured  by  him.  Sari  Saltik  agreed  to  slay  the 
monster  and  deliver  the  princesses  on  condition  that 
they  became  Moslems. 

Accompanied  by  his  seventy  Dervishes,  beating 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         165 

their  drums  and  waving  their  banners,  he  proceeded 
to  the  column  to  which  the  doomed  maidens  were 
bound,  drew  his  wooden  sword,  and  waited.  The 
Dragon  soon  appeared,  and  the  Saint,  addressing 
him  with  the  passage  from  the  Koran  beginning 
"  Greetings  to  Noah  in  Both  Worlds,"  cut  off  three 
of  his  heads  so  that  he  fled  away  with  the  remaining 
four.  The  Dervish  pursued  him  to  his  den,  at  the 
entrance  to  which  he  cut  off  the  remaining  heads, 
and  then  followed  the  monster  into  the  cave,  where 
a  frightful  struggle  took  place.  The  Dragon  pressed 
the  Saint  so  hard  against  the  rock  that  the  impres- 
sion of  his  hands  and  feet  remained  visible.  At 
last  Sari  Saltik  slew  the  monster,  and,  with  his 
bloody  breast  and  bloody  sword,  he  led  the  maidens 
back  to  their  father,  the  king. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  a  "  cursed  (Christian) 
monk "  who  had  shown  Saltik  the  way  to  the 
column,  had  picked  up  the  three  tongues  and  the 
ears  of  the  three  heads  first  cut  off  and  carried  them 
to  the  king,  boasting  that  he  had  killed  the  Dragon. 
The  princesses  bore  out  the  testimony  of  the  Saint ; 
but  the  monk  persisting  in  his  statement.  Sari  Saltik 
proposed  as  a  test  that  they  should  be  both  broiled 
together  in  a  cauldron.  The  monk  did  not  approve 
of  this  trial  by  ordeal ;  but,  by  command  of  the 
King,  he  was  obUged  to  undergo  it.  Sari  Saltik 
was  tied  up  by  his  Dervishes,  and  the  monk  by 
his  companions,  and  both  were  put  into  a  large 
cauldron  heated  by  an  immense  fire.  It  was  at 
this  hour  that  Hadji  Bektash,  who  was  then  at 

12 — (21 19) 


166  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

Kir  Shehir  in  Asia  Minor,  swept  with  a  handkerchief 
a  dripping  rock,  exclaiming,  "  My  Saltik  Mohammed 
is  now  in  great  distress,  may  Allah  assist  him  !  " 
Ever  since  that  day,  salt,  instead  of,  as  before, 
fresh  water,  has  dripped  from  that  rock,  and  from 
it  the  kind  of  salt  called  "  Hadji  Bektash  "  is  pro- 
duced. The  cauldron  being  opened,  Sari  Saltik  was 
found  perspiring  and  ejaculating  "  O  All  Vivifying  ! 
(Yi  Hayl)]^  but  of  the  monk  nothing  was  left 
but  blackened  cinders  and  burnt  bones.  The  King 
of  the  Dobrudja,  moved  by  this  miracle,  instantly, 
together  v/ith  seven  thousand  of  his  subjects,  em- 
braced the  faith  of  Islam.  He  also  sent  ambas- 
sadors to  Sultan  Orchan,  who  bestowed  upon  him 
the  title  of  Kadi,  a  horse-tail  standard,  a  banner,  and 
the  Moslem  name  of  AU  Mukhtar. 

In  the  same  year  Sari  Saltik  made  his  will,  wherein 
he  commanded  seven  cofhns  to  be  made,  because 
seven  Kings  were  to  contend  for  his  body  after 
death.  And  so  it  fell  out.  After  his  corpse  had 
been  washed  and  laid  in  one  of  the  coffins,  seven 
kings  demanded  the  privilege  of  burying  it.  A 
cofhn  was  given  to  all  the  seven,  who  were  "  the 
Kings  of  Muscovy,  Poland,  Bohemia,  Sweden, 
Adrianople,  Moldavia,  and  the  Dobrudja."  The 
last  buried  the  coffin  that  fell  to  him  in  the  Cave  of 
the  Dragon  at  Kilgra  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  built 
a  Tekkeh  close  by,  where  the  Saint's  wooden  sword, 
drum,  and  banner  were  treasured  as  rehcs.^ 

1  One  of  the  attributes  of  the  Deity 

2  Narrative  of  Travels. 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS         167 

Of  the  many  Dervish  saints  whose  turbes  or 
mausoleums  are  to  be  found  in  that  picturesque 
old  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Sultans,  Broussa,  one 
of  the  most  famous  was  Shemsii-'d-Dm  Mohammed 
Ben  Ali,  a  Seyyid,  or  descendant  of  the  Prophet, 
who  also  bore  the  honourable  title  of  Emir  Sultan,  ^ 
bestowed  on  him  on  account  of  his  learning.  When 
performing  his  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  cities,  the 
Sherifs,  his  fellow  descendants,  refused  him  the 
portion  to  which  he  was  entitled  by  his  descent. 
The  Saint  accordingly  decided  to  refer  the  matter 
to  the  decision  of  the  Prophet  himself,  and,  going 
to  his  tomb  accompanied  by  the  other  Seyyids, 
they  heard  a  voice  from  within  cry  "  Health  to 
thee,  my  son  Mohammed  Ben  Ah  !  go  to  Riim^ 
with  the  lamp  !  "  Upon  hearing  this,  the  Sherifs 
threw  themselves  at  Shemsii-'d-Din's  feet,  and 
acknowledged  their  fault.  He  shortly  afterwards 
set  out  for  Anatolia,  whereupon  a  lamp  suspended 
from  heaven  became  his  guide  on  the  way,  and 
disappeared  only  when  he  entered  the  gates  of 
Broussa.  Emir  Sultan  accepted  this  as  a  sign  that 
he  was  to  take  up  his  abode  in  this  city,  where  he 
found  awaiting  him  four  hundred  thousand  dis- 
ciples.^ For  the  inhabitants  had  seen  the  lamp 
hanging  from  heaven  for  three  days,  and  knew  by 
that  wonder  that  they  might  expect  the  advent  of  a 

1  Referred  to  on  p.  33.      ^  gee  note,  p.  16. 

3  This  is  evidently  one  of  the  characteristically  Oriental 
exaggerations  with  which  Evhya  Effendi  is  frequently 
taxed  by  his  translator. 


168  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

Saint.  Under  his  direction  they  all  became  Der- 
vishes. Sultan  Bayazid  not  only  walked  on  foot 
by  his  stirrup,  but  gave  him  his  daughter  Nutiifer 
Hannm  in  marriage.  When  this  Sultan  had  com- 
pleted the  building  of  the  Oulou  Jami,i  qj-  «  Great 
Mosque,"  he  asked  Emir  Sultan  if  it  were  not 
a  perfect  mosque.  "  Yes,'*  replied  the  Saint,  "  it 
is  a  very  elegant  mosque,  but  some  cups  of  wine 
for  the  refreshment  of  the  pious  are  wanting  in  the 
middle."  The  Sultan  exclaimed  with  surprise, 
"  How  would  it  be  possible  to  stain  the  house  of 
Allah  with  the  liquor  forbidden  by  the  law  ?  " 
"  Well,"  repHed  the  Saint,  "  thou  hast  built  a 
mosque,  Bayazid,  and  findest  it  strange  to  put  z 
cup  of  wine  therein  ;  but  thy  body,  which  is  a 
house  of  Allah  more  excellent  than  a  talisman 
composed  of  the  Divine  Names,  or  the  throne  of 
Allah  Himself — how  is  it  that  thou  dost  not  fear 
to  stain  the  purity  of  this  godhke  house  with  wine, 
day  and  night  ?  "  From  that  moment,  adds  the 
narrator,  "  Bayazid  repented,  and  left  off  drinking 


wine." 


Among  the  number  of  holy  men  who  favoured 
Evliya  Effendi  with  their  friendship,  was  the  Sheikh 
Abdi  [Dedeh,  who  built  the  Mevlevi  Monastery  at 
Kassim   Pasha,    on    the   outskirts   of   the   capital. 

1  Three  Sultans  took  part  in  the  building  of  this  magnifi- 
cent mosque,  Murad  I,  Bayazid  I,  and  Mohammed  I.  The 
interior  is  divided  by  pillars  into  twenty-five  halls,  each 
roofed  with  a  separate  dome.  It  is,  however,  not  this 
"  Great  Mosque,"  but  another  that  bears  the  name  of 
"  Bayazid  Ilderim." 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  ADEPTS  169 

According  to  this  author,  Sheikh  Abdi  was  "in 
mystic  lore,  a  second  Jelalij-'d-Din.  He  knew  by 
their  names  all  those  who  came  to  the  convent, 
though  he  had  never  seen  them  before.  When  he 
sang,  "  he  intoxicated  all  Dervishes."  Evliya 
Effendi  also  narrates  that,  as  Sultan  Murad  was 
on  one  occasion  returning  from  Broussa  to  Con- 
stantinople by  sea,  he  was  in  danger  of  being  drowned 
near  Cape  Bozbournou,  when  he  "  saw  at  the  ship's 
head  the  Sheikh,  who  calmed  the  waves." 

Of  the  Saints  canonized  in  our  own  days  I  may 
mention  a  Sheikh  of  Cavalla,  whose  gift  of  prophecy 
had  enabled  him  to  predict  the  day  and  hour  of 
his  departure  from  the  world.  This  holy  man 
caused  his  tomb  to  be  prepared  in  the  hall  of  the 
Tekkeh ;  and,  though  apparently  in  his  usual 
health,  he,  on  the  eve  of  the  appointed  day,  an- 
nounced to  his  wife  and  his  disciples  that  he  must 
now  take  leave  of  them,  as  that  day  would  be  his  last. 
These  farewells  taken,  he  calmly  proceeded  alone 
to  the  hall  and  lay  down  in  the  tomb  that  was  to 
be  his  last  resting-place.  When,  on  the  following 
morning,  the  disciples  arrived  at  the  Tekkeh,  they 
found  that  their  revered  master  had  indeed,  accord- 
ing to  his  prediction,  breathed  his  last.  The  fame  of 
his  holy  Hfe  and  the  circumstances  of  his  death 
soon  became  widely  known  in  the  neighbourhood  ; 
the  devout  watchers  did  not  fail  to  see  supernatural 
lights  hovering  over  his  grave  ;  and  before  long 
miracles  of  heahng  were  reported  to  have  been 
performed  at  the  shrine  of  the  Sheikh  of  Cavalla. 


CHAPTER   XI 

WOMEN  MYSTICS 

'*  Her  Woman's  sex  dims  not  the  Sun's  effulgent  ray  ; 
Though  MascuUne  the  Moon,  he  lighteth  not  the  day."  ^ 

From  the  Arabic. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  high  estimation  in  which 

women  have  always  been  held  by  the  Siifis  that  the 

place  of  honour  among  the  early  mystics  is  by  them 

assigned  to  a  woman.     This  distinguished  person  was 

Rabia  al  Adawia,  also  called  Umm  al  Khair  (''  The 

Mother  of  Good,")  a  native  of  Bissora,  who  lived 

in  the  eighth  century,  and  whose  reputed  grave  on 

Mount  Tor,  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem,  became,  like 

those  of  the  generality  of  Moslem  saints,  a  place  of 

pilgrimage.     The  words  and  actions  of  this  Queen 

of  Mystics  have  been  recorded  by  many  Oriental 

writers,  ^  and  contain  a  germ  of  Sufism,  or  kind  of 

sentimental  pantheism,  which  often  found  poetical 

or  rhythmic  expression.     An  eminent  Siifi  writer 

of  the  twelfth   century,   Ibn   Khamis   Al   Juhani, 

relates  in  his  works   many   anecdotes   of   Rabia 's 

sanctity  and  piety,  some  of  which  are  quoted  by 

Ibn  Khallikan  in  his  Biographical  Dictionary.     The 

following  verse  is  attributed  to  her  : — 

My  heart  I  keep  for  Thy  communion,  Lord  ! 
And  those  who  seek  me  but  my  body  find. 
My  guests  may  with  my  body  converse  hold, 
But  my  Belov'd  alone  holds  converse  with  my  heart. 

1  In  Arabic,  as  in  German,  the  Moon  is  masculine  and  the 
Sun  feminine. 

2  M.  Dozy,  however,  attaches  no  historical  value  to  the 
legends  concerning  Rabia.     Essai,  etc.,  p.  318-19. 

170 


WOMEN   MYSTICS  171 

It  is  related  that  on  one  occasion  the  celebrated 
Moslem  theologians,  Hassan  of  Bassora  and  Shakik 
of  Balk,  came  to  visit  this  pious  lady  when  she  was 
ill.  The  former  greeted  her  in  mystic  fashion  with 
the  following  couplet : — 

He  in  his  faith  cannot  be  all  sincere. 

Who  mourns  the  chastening  of  his  Master  dear. 

Shakik  added,  correcting  his  friend: — 

He  in  his  faith  cannot  be  all  sincere, 

Who  joys  not,  chastened  by  his  Master  dear. 

Rabia's  enthusiasm,  however,  went  beyond  that  of 
her  eminent  and  reverend  guests,  and  she  replied  : — 

He  in  his  faith  cannot  be  all  sincere. 

Who  feels  a  smart  when  draws  his  Master  near  I 

Another  eminent  contemporary  theologian, 
Sofyan  ath  Thauri,  exclaimed  one  day  in  her 
presence,  "  O  what  anguish  is  mine ! "  Rabia 
reproved  him,  saying,  "  Speak  not  a  lie,  but  rather 
say,  '  O  how  little  anguish  is  mine !  *  If  thou  wert 
really  in  affliction  thou  couldst  not  sigh."  One 
of  the  Siifi  brethren  relates  that  in  his  prayers  he 
was  accustomed  to  invoke  Rabia,  who  appeared  to 
him  in  a  vision,  and  said  :  *'  Thy  offerings  were 
presented  to  us  on  trays  of  light,  and  covered  with 
napkins  of  light."  She  often  said,  "  If  my  good 
works  appear  to  the  world,  I  count  them  as 
nought,"  and  one  of  her  counsels  was  :  "  Hide  thy 
good  deeds  as  thou  wouldst  hide  thy  sins."  One  of 
her  biographers  gives  a  story  as  related  by  Abda,  a 
handmaid  of  this  pious  lady  :  "  Rabia  used  to  pass 
the  whole  night  in  prayer,  and  at  morning  dawn 


172  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

she  took  a  short  sleep  in  her  oratory  till  daylight ; 
and  I  have  heard  her  exclaim,  springing  from  her 
couch  as  if  in  dread  :  *  0  my  soul !  how  long  wilt 
thou  sleep  ?  When  wilt  thou  awake  ?  Soon  thou 
shalt  sleep  to  rise  no  more  till  the  call  shall  summon 
thee  on  the  Day  of  Resurrection  ! '  This  was  her 
constant  custom  till  the  day  of  her  death.  On  its 
approach,  she  called  me  and  said,  *  O  Abda  !  in- 
form none  of  my  death,  and  shroud  me  in  this 
gown.'  This  was  a  gown  of  hair-cloth  which  she 
wore  when  praying  at  the  time  when  the  eyes  of 
others  were  closed  in  sleep.  I  shrouded  her  in  that 
gown  and  in  a  woollen  veil  which  she  used  to  wear  ; 
and  about  a  year  afterwards  I  saw  her  in  a  dream, 
clothed  in  a  gown  and  veil  of  green  silk,  the  like  of 
which  for  beauty  I  never  beheld.  And  I  said,  *  O 
Rabia  !  what  has  become  of  the  gown  in  which  I 
shrouded  thee,  and  of  the  woollen  veil  ? '  To  which 
she  answered,  '  By  Allah  !  it  was  taken  off  me,  and 
I  received  in  exchange  what  thou  seest  on  me  ;  my 
shroud  was  folded  up,  a  seal  was  put  upon  it,  and 
it  was  taken  up  to  the  highest  heaven,  that  by  it 
my  reward  might  be  complete  on  the  day  of  resur- 
rection.' *  It  was  for  this,'  I  observed,  '  that 
thou  didst  work  when  in  the  world.'  '  And 
what  is  this,'  she  rejoined,  *  compared  with  what 
I  have  seen  of  Allah's  bounty  to  his  Saints  ?  '  I 
asked  her  in  what  state  was  Obaida  (a  holy  woman 
who  had  predeceased  her),  and  she  replied,  *  It 
cannot  be  described.  By  Allah  !  She  has  surpassed 
us  all,  and  reached  the  highest  place  in  Paradise.' 


WOMEN  MYSTICS  173 

*  And  how  is  that,'  said  I,  *  when  all  men  con- 
sidered thee  far,  far  above  her  ? '  '  Because,*  she 
rephed,  '  when  in  the  world  she  took  no  thought 
for  the  morrow,  nor  even  for  the  coming  night.'  '* 

In  the  Acts  of  the  Adepts,  and  elsewhere,  we  also 
find  records  of  many  holy  women,  some  of  whom 
were  honoured  with  the  friendship  of  the  poet- 
saint  Jelalu-'d-Din  ;  and  not  least  eminent  among 
them  were  his  wife,  Kira  Khatun,  and  his  daughter- 
in-law,  Fatima.  The  latter  had  been  taught  to 
read  and  write  by  Jelal,  who  bestowed  upon  her 
the  comphmentary  title  of  his  ''  Right  Eye  "  ;  her 
sister  he  called  his  "  Left  Eye  "  ;  and  their  mother, 
Latifa  Khatiin,  "  the  Personification  of  God's  grace." 
"Fatima,"  says  the  story,  "was  a  Saint,  and 
continually  worked  miracles.  She  fasted  by  day, 
and  watched  by  night,  tasting  food  only  once  in 
three  days.  She  was  very  charitable  to  the  poor, 
the  orphans,  and  the  widows,  distributing  to  them 
food  and  raiment." 

Kira  Khatun  was  also  a  most  saintly  woman. 
She  was  Jelalii-'d-Din's  second  wife,  and  survived 
him.  When  she,  too,  departed  this  hfe,  and  was 
about  to  be  buried  by  the  side  of  her  husband,  a 
strange  incident  occurred.  As  her  corpse  was  being 
borne  towards  its  last  resting-place,  the  procession 
passed  through  one  of  the  gates  of  the  town 
(Konieh).  Here  the  bearers  found  themselves 
arrested  by  some  unseen  power,  so  that  they  could 
not  move  hand  or  foot.  This  singular  effect  lasted 
for  about  half  an  hour.     Her  stepson,  Sultan  Veled, 


174  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

struck  up  a  hymn  and  commenced  a  holy  dance, 
after  which  the  bearers  recovered  the  use  of  their 
limbs  and  the  interment  was  completed.  That 
same  night  a  holy  man  of  the  fraternity  saw 
Kira  Khatun  in  heaven  by  the  side  of  her  husband, 
and  enquired  of  her  the  reason  of  the  arrestation  of 
the  funeral.     She  informed  him  thus  : — 

"  On  the  previous  day  a  man  and  a  woman  had 
on  that  spot,  been  stoned  to  death  for  adultery.  I 
took  compassion  on  them,  interceded  for  their  for- 
giveness, and  obtained  for  them  admission  to 
Paradise.  My  preoccupation  on  their  behalf  was 
the  reason  of  the  delay  met  with  by  the  funeral 
procession."  ^ 

According  to  EflSki,  there  hved  at  Konieh  in 
the  days  of  JelSlii-'d-Din,  a  saintly  lady  named 
Fakhrii-'n-Nisa  ("  The  Glory  of  Women  "),  who 
enjoyed  the  acquaintance  of  the  holy  men  of  the  time, 

"^  The  Mesnevi,  p.  119.  This  curious  legend  appears  to 
illustrate  the  Moslem  notion  that  the  soul  remains  with  the 
body  until  after  burial,  and  that  it  is  only  then — except, 
perhaps,  in  the  case  of  such  saintly  persons  as  Kira  Khatun 
— that  its  ultimate  destiny  is  decided.  After  the  last  rites 
have  been  performed  by  the  relatives,  the  Imam  is  left 
alone  by  the  grave  in  order,  it  is  said,  to  prompt  the 
deceased  in  his  replies  to  the  **  Questioners."  These  are 
the  two  Angels,  Mounkir  and  Nekir,  who,  according  to 
Moslem  belief,  enter  the  grave  with  the  dead  in  order  to 
interrogate  them  concerning  their  faith.  If  the  dead  has 
been  a  devout  Moslem,  his  reply  will  be  "  My  God  is  Allah  ; 
my  Prophet,  Mohammed  ;  my  religion,  Islam  ;  and  my 
Kibla,  the  Ka'aba."  If,  however,  he  has  been  but  an 
indifferent  follower  of  the  Prophet,  he  will  not  be  able  to 
remember  this  formula. 


WOMEN  MYSTICS  175 

all  of  whom  were  aware  of  her  sanctity.  Miracles  were 
wrought  by  her  in  countless  numbers.  She  con- 
stantly attended  the  meetings  at  Jelal's  house  and 
received  occasionally  visits  from  him.  Her  friends 
suggested  that  she  ought  to  go  and  perform  the 
pilgrimage  to  Mekka  ;  but  she  wordd  not  decide 
upon  so  serious  an  undertaking  without  first  con- 
sulting Jelal.  Accordingly,  she  went  to  see  him. 
As  she  entered  his  presence,  before  she  spoke,  he 
called  out  to  her  :  "  Oh  most  happy  idea  !  May 
thy  journey  be  prosperous!  God  willing,  we  shall 
be  together."  She  bowed,  but  said  nothing.  The 
disciples  present  were  puzzled.  "That  night  she 
remained  a  guest  at  Jelal's  house,  conversing  with 
him  till  past  midnight,  when,  according  to  his 
custom,  he  went  to  perform  his  devotions  on  the 
housetop.  Presently  he  called  to  her  to  come  up 
also,  and  when  she  did  so,  she  saw  the  holy  Ka'aba 
of  Mekka  revolving  in  the  air  above  the  head  of 
Jelal.  So  overcome  was  Fakhrii-'n-Nisa  by  this 
wondrous  sight,  that  she  sank  down  in  a  swoon.  On 
recovering  she  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was 
not  necessary  for  her  to  undertake  the  difficult 
and  dangerous  journey  to  the  Holy  City,  as  its 
chief  attraction  had  been  thus  marvellously  revealed 
to  her." 

In  later  centuries  also  it  would  appear  that 
Societies  of  pious  women  have  been  from  time  to 
time  afhhated  with  the  Dervish  Orders.  These 
holy  women  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
biographies  of  Dervish  Saints,  either  individually, 


176  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

or  collectively  by  some  such  name  as  "  The  Sisters 
of  Riim,"  alluded  to  in  the  writings  of  Hadji  Bektash. 
Nor  is  such  mystical  devotion  entirely  unknown 
among  Osmanh  women  at  the  present  day.  The 
widow  of  the  Ca valla  Sheikh  above  referred  to,  a 
woman  of  great  intelhgence,  presided,  after  her 
husband's  death,  over  a  society  of  female  devotees 
who  held  their  meetings  at  her  residence.  A  British 
subject  who  had  had  business  relations  with  the 
Sheikh  in  connection  with  the  tobacco-growing 
industry  of  Cavalla  and  the  neighbourhood,  from 
which  the  revenues  of  the  Tekkeh  were  derived, 
obtained  from  this  lady  many  curious  details  con- 
cerning her  Sisterhood,  and  was  even  allowed  by 
her  to  be  a  hidden  spectator  of  their  devotions. 
During  the  first  years  of  my  residence  at  Salonica  I 
chanced  to  come  into  contact  with  a  Turkish  lady 
who  was  always  referred  to  as  "  the  Dervish  Hanum,'* 
and  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  no  mean 
poetess.  Though  sufficiently  liberal  minded  to  admit 
European  ladies  to  her  acquaintance  and  visit  them 
in  their  own  houses,  she,  however,  always  skilfully 
parried  any  attempt  to  ehcit  information  with 
respect  to  the  Sisterhood  of  Mystics  of  which  report 
proclaimed  her  to  be  a  distinguished  member. 

In  the  earher  times  of  Islam  much  greater  freedom 
of  manners  appears  to  have  existed  than  has  been 
the  case  in  later  centuries.  Indeed  the  records  of 
the  Prophet's  commands  on  the  subject  of  the 
seclusion  of  women,  and  the  glimpses  we  have  in 
the  Koran  and  in  the  writings  of  the  Commentators 


DERVISH   WITH    LEANING   CRUTCH 


WOMEN   MYSTICS  177 

of  the  social  life  of  his  time,  do  not  point  to  any 
greater  "  subjection  of  women  "  than  that  enjoined 
by  the  Apostle  Paul ;  and  the  women  of  the  Prophet's 
household  evidently  held  a  much  higher  position, 
and  were  treated  with  far  more  respect  than  are  the 
women  of  a  provincial  Armenian  family  at  the  pre- 
sent day.  The  Turkish  harem  system,  though  less 
rigid  than  is  generally  believed  in  Europe,  naturally 
offers  great  obstacles  to  the  formation  of  sister- 
hoods. And  the  natural  result  of  denying  to  women 
any  social  intercourse  with  the  other  sex  has  been 
to  stifle  any  desire  for  even  that  moderate  amount 
of  education  necessary  to  enable  them  to  read  and 
appreciate  the  spiritual  writings  by  which  their 
husbands  and  brothers  are  influenced.  For  though 
it  is  naturally  the  more  ignorant  among  Moslem 
women  who  believe  most  implicitly  in  the  wonder- 
working powers  of  Dervish  Sheikhs,  it  is  on  the 
other  hand  only  women  who  have  received  a  good 
Turkish  education  who  "  enter  on  the  Mystic  Path,'* 
and  are  distinguished  by  the  title  of  Sufi  Hanuni, 


CHAPTER   XII 

STATUS  AND   INFLUENCE   OF  THE   ORDERS 

"Not  at  Strife's  door  sits  he;  when  thwarted  ne'er 
Starts  up  to  contest ;    all  unmoved  his  soul, 
He  is  no  Saint  who  from  the  Path  would  stir 
Though  a  huge  rock  should  from  a  mountain  roll." 

After  the  establishment  of  the  twelve  original 
Orders,  the  numbers  of  the  Dervishes  greatly  in- 
creased in  all  the  Asiatic  countries  which  had  come 
under  the  influence  of  Islam.  In  the  train  of  Ala- 
'd-Din,  Sultan  of  Iconium,  and  his  successor  Orchan, 
they  spread  themselves  over  Asia  Minor ;  and, 
after  the  conquest  of  Broussa  by  the  latter  prince, 
the  munificence  of  the  victors,  who  attributed  the 
success  of  their  armies  to  the  presence  of  these  holy 
men,  enabled  the  Dervish  Sheikhs  to  found  monas- 
teries and  colleges  in  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  For 
the  Founders,  at  least,  of  these  early  Orders  were,  as 
has  been  seen,  men  of  great  learning  and  wide 
culture,  as  well  as  of  saintly  life. 

The  slopes  of  the  Bithynian  Olympus  rising 
steeply  behind  the  ancient  Ottoman  capital  of 
Broussa,  which  had  for  centuries  previously  been 
the  resort  of  Christian  hermits  and  cenobites,  were 
now  taken  possession  of  by  Moslem  recluses  who  here 
established  themselves  among  the  flocks  of  the 
Turcoman  nomads  ;  and  the  coolness  and  quiet  of 
the  retreats  which  had  favoured  the  holy  idleness  of 

178 


STATUS  AND   INFLUENCE  179 

Christian  monks,  now  charmed  the  reveries  of 
Dervish  poets  and  the  meditations  of  Siifi  philo- 
sophers. Their  honoured  tombs  may  still  be  seen  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountain  where  they  passed  their 
lives,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Schools  of  Philosophy 
in  which  they  taught.  Amid  these  beautiful  and 
romantic  surroundings,  after  having  themselves  drunk 
deeply  of  the  wells  of  science,  they  spread  their  senti- 
ments, their  ideas,  and  their  knowledge  in  works  which 
will  live  as  long  as  the  Ottoman  language  and  nation 
endure.  Sultan  Orchan,  who  acknowledged  that  he 
had  conquered  Broussa  by  their  spiritual  aid,  placed 
the  most  distinguished  among  the  Sheikhs  at  the 
head  of  the  Schools  he  founded,  endowed  them 
with  liberal  salaries,  and  honoured  them  with 
complimentary  titles. 

The  influence  exercised  by  the  Dervishes  over  the 
minds  of  the  people  generally,  though  often,  as  we 
have  seen,  made  use  of  by  the  Sultans  and  their 
Ministers  for  State  purposes,  has  occasionally  caused 
alarm,  and  the  Orders  have  in  consequence  not 
only  been  at  such  times  regarded  with  suspicion,  but 
subjected  to  active  persecution.  The  earliest,  and 
in  fact,  the  general,  accusation  brought  against  these 
mystics  was  that  their  practices  were  contrary  to  the 
spirit  of  Islam  and  the  express  commands  of  the  Pro- 
phet ;  and  from  the  time  of  their  first  formation, 
under  the  Khalifs,  attempts  were  made  to  stop  the 
progress  of  this  enthusiasm  for  a  monastic  life.  In 
these  attempts  the  civil  power  had  the  entire  concur- 
rence of  the  Ulema  or  Legists  who,  as  students  and 


180  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

expounders  of  the  Koranic  Law,  found  their  own 
spiritual  supremacy  menaced,  and  were  naturally 
jealous  of  the  growing  influence  and  importance  of 
this  rival  sect.  Under  the  pretence  of  defending 
Moslem  orthodoxy,  but  in  reahty  to  maintain  their 
own  power  and  prestige,  they  became  the  formidable 
auxiharies  of  the  government  in  a  struggle  which 
menaced  at  one  time  the  throne  itself.  ^  But  the 
active  opposition  to  the  Dervishes  appears  always 
to  have  been  rather  spasmodic  and  intermittent 
than  regular  and  systematic  ;  and  what  ground 
they  lost  at  one  period  and  under  one  sovereign 
they  often  more  than  regained  under  his  successor. 
In  the  nineteenth  century,  as  in  the  days  of 
Orchan,  their  influence  has  been  made  use  of  by 
Sultans  and  Generals  to  excite  the  zeal  and  courage 
of  their  troops  in  battle.  Whenever  a  mihtary 
campaign  had  been  organised,  a  number  of  Der- 
vishes from  nearly  all  the  Orders  hasten  to  join 
the  army.  Commanding  officers  gladly  engage 
their  services  and  treat  them  with  every  respect 
and  consideration,  as  their  presence  in  the  camp, 
where  they  spend  whole  days  and  nights  fasting  in 
their  tents,  while  offering  supphcations  and  making 
vows  for  the  success  of  the  arms  of  the  True  Be- 
lievers, maintains  a  most  desirable  religious  enthu- 
siasm among  the  troops.  On  the  eve  of  an  action 
the  Dervishes  roam  excitedly  through  the  camp, 
rehearsing  the  benefits  promised  by  the  Prophet  to 
all  who  fight  for  the  Faith  of  Islam,  or  who  die  in 

^  Ubicini,  Lettres  sur  la  Turqiiie,  Vol,  I,  p.  166, 


STATUS  AND   INFLUENCE  181 

arms,  and  seek  to  rouse  the  zeal  and  animate  the 
courage  of  the  soldiers  by  every  means  in  their 
power.  During  a  battle  their  excitement  increases, 
and  their  voices  may  be  heard  above  the  din  of 
war,  shouting,  '' O  Victors!"  (Yd  Ghazi)  \  "O 
Martyrs!"  {Yd  Shahid)  \  ''Yd  Allah  \''  or  Yd 
Hoo  !  "  (0  Him).  If  they  fancy  the  Holy  Standard, 
the  mantle  of  the  Prophet,  to  be  in  danger,  they 
crowd  round  the  sacred  reUc  to  strengthen  the 
hues  of  the  officers  stationed  as  its  guard,  and  not 
only  sustain  their  efforts,  but  themselves  perform 
prodigies  of  valour.  A  Dervish  of  high  renown  in 
his  day,  Ak  Shemsu-'d'Din  by  name,  is  said  to  have 
foretold  to  Mohammed  "the  Conqueror"  the  day 
and  hour  of  the  fall  of  Constantinople.  Together 
with  seventy-seven  other  "  distinguished  and  holy 
men  beloved  of  Allah,"  he  accompanied  the  Sultan 
to  that  memorable  siege  ;  and  the  Sultan  made  a 
covenant  with  them  that  one  half  of  the  city  should 
belong  to  them  and  the  other  half  to  the  Moslem 
conquerors.  "  And  I  wiU,"  said  he,  "  build  for  each 
of  you  a  monastery,  an  almshouse,  a  college,  and  a 
School  of  Sacred  Traditions  [Dar-l-Hadis)"  The 
deeds  of  valour  achieved  by  these  enthusiasts  at  the 
taking  of  Constantinople,  and  the  miracles  performed 
in  answer  to  their  prayers  are  recorded— and,  it 
need  hardly  be  said,  exaggerated— by  Moslem 
historians  ;  and  the  tombs  of  many  are  to  this  day 
places  of  pilgrimage   for  the  Faithful. 

Nor  were  the  Dervishes  held  in  less  honour  by 
succeeding    Sultans.     After    the    capture    of    the 

13— (aiig) 


182  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

Byzantine  capital  and  the  consolidation  of  the  Empire, 
their  poets  and  writers  remained  in  high  favour  at 
Court,  and  there  were  few  Padishahs  who  were  not  en- 
rolled as  members  of  one  or  more  of  the  Orders.  The 
long  reign  of  Bayazid  II  (1481-1521)  also  bears  traces 
of  the  influence  of  Mystic  philosophy  on  the  Court. 
The  most  renowned  Dervish  of  that  time,  the 
Sheikh  Jasi,  had,  when  about  to  start  on  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mekka,  foretold  to  Bayazid,  then  governor  of 
Amasia,  that  on  his  return  from  the  Holy  City  he 
would  find  the  Prince  on  the  throne,  and  it  fell  out 
as  he  had  predicted.  This  eminent  man  received 
the  titles  of  "  Sheikh  of  Sultans,"  and  "  Sultan  of 
Sheikhs,"  and  his  cell  was  the  meeting-place  of  all 
the  dignitaries  of  the  Empire.  The  Turkish  writers 
Seadeddin  and  Ali  narrate  the  biographies  of  thirty 
eminent  Dervishes  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  this 
Sultan,  called  by  many  Ottoman  historians  "  Bajazid 
the  Siifi."  The  influence  of  the  Dervish  society  by 
which  this  Sultan  surrounded  himself  may  also  be 
seen  in  his  poetry,  which  breathes  a  spirit  of  mysti- 
cism and  philosophy  markedly  absent  from  the 
writings  of  his  talented  but  unhappy  brother, 
Prince  Djem,  and  his  son,  Selim  I. 

Notwithstanding  the  secular  hostility  of  the 
Ulema,  it  does  not  appear  that,  previous  to  the 
16th  century,  the  Dervish  Orders  were  interfered 
with  by  the  Government.  For  so  long  as  the  sub- 
stance of  the  doctrines  held  by  the  higher  grades  of 
these  mystics  was  kept  secret,  the  denunciations  by 
the  Legists  of  their  ascetic  practices,  their  vows,  the 


STATUS  AND  INFLUENCE  183 

dancing  and  other  peculiar  exercises  performed  in 
their  Tekkehs,  their  pretensions  to  miraculous  gifts, 
and  claims  to  direct  communion  with  the  Deity, 
had  but  httle  effect.     But  as  the  influence  and  pres- 
tige of  the  Dervishes  increased,  many  of  the  Orders 
relaxed  by  degrees  the  prudence  and  severity  of  their 
original  rules,  and  allowed  much  of  their  doctrine  to 
become  pubhcly  known.     Their  enemies  were  now 
enabled  to  make  definite  and  serious  charges  against 
them.     They  were  accused  of  attempting  to  make 
innovations  on  the  dogmas  of  Islam  ;    of  following 
practices  forbidden  by  the  Koran  ;    of  denying  the 
very  existence  of  a  personal  Allah  ;  of  teaching  dis- 
respect   for    all    estabhshed    institutions ;    and   of 
setting    at    nought    all    law,    both    human    and 
divine.      Their  religious  exercises  were  denounced 
as  profane  acts  ;   and  it  was  asserted  that  all  kinds 
of  abominable  practices  were  indulged  in  by  them 
in  the  seclusion  of  their  monasteries.     The  general 
tendency  of  the  Dervish  institutions  appeared  to 
the  Ulema  to  threaten  also  the  introduction  into 
Islam  of  something  analogous  to  the  "  Holy  Priest- 
hood "  and  "  Apostolic  Succession  "  of  the  Romish 
Church— ideas  utterly  at  variance  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Koran.       An  alleged  discovery  that  gave 
a  still  greater  shock  to   the  orthodox   mind  was 
that  the  Dervishes  concluded  some  of  their  prayers 
by  anathematising  the  Ommiade  Khahfs  and  glori- 
fying  the    Khahf   Ali  ;     and,   consequently,    that, 
though  nominally  Silnnis,  they  virtually  belonged 
to  the  heterodox  sect  of  the  Skids. 


184  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

There  seems,  however,  Uttle  reason  to  doubt  that 
whenever  overt  hostihty  has  been  manifested  against 
the  Dervish  Orders  by  a  Sultan  and  his  Ministers 
it  has  invariably  been  prompted  by  pohtical,  rather 
than  religious  motives.  For  notwithstanding  the 
odium  cast  upon  these  Mystics  by  the  Legists,  no 
active  measures,  as  above  remarked,  appear  to  have 
been  taken  against  them  by  the  Government  until 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when 
political  events  caused  them  to  be  looked  upon  as 
a  possible  source  of  danger  to  the  State. 

A  new  dynasty  had  been  founded  in  Persia  at 
this  period  on  the  basis  of  rehgion.  The  Sufi 
Philosophy  had  always  been  popular  in  that  country ; 
and  Persia  was  at  the  same  time  the  stronghold 
of  the  Shia  heresy  and  of  the  Dervish  Fraternities. 
A  Dervish  Sheikh,  named  Eidar,  who  traced  his 
descent  from  the  Khahf  Ah,  having  gained  a  great 
reputation  for  sanctity  and  a  numerous  following 
of  disciples  and  adherents,  assumed  the  title  of 
"  Sufi"  par  excellence,  and  declared  himself  to  have 
been  commissioned  by  Allah  to  work  a  religious 
reformation.  Sheikh  Eidar  perished  in  the  attempt ; 
but  his  young  son,  Ismail,  was  protected  by  his 
faithful  disciples,  who  took  refuge  with  him  in 
GhilSn,  and  carefully  trained  him  in  his  father's 
principles.  In  1501,  at  the  head  of  a  numerous 
body  of  partisans,  Ismail  revived  the  claims  of 
Sheikh  Eidar  ;  and,  gradually  overcoming  all  oppo- 
sition, he  at  length  became  the  founder  of  the 
Sufi  Dynasty,  and  the  ruler  of  an  extensive  Empire. 


STATUS   AND   INFLUENCE  185 

His  doctrines  gained  also  many  adherents  in  the 
Asiatic  provinces  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  where 
Sehm  I  took  early  and  vigorous  measures  to  suppress 
this  new  heretical  sect.  For,  as  Church  and  State 
are,  in  Islam,  identical,  a  blow  aimed  at  the  one 
menaces  equally  the  other  ;  and  the  great  schism 
of  the  Sunnis  and  Shids  is  not  a  mere  diversity  of 
opinion  purely  religious  and  theoretic,  but  also  a 
practical  political  dispute  concerning  the  succession 
to  the  Khalifate,  the  headship  of  the  Moslem  Faith. 
Sultan  Selim,  whose  inquisitorial  talents  are  cele- 
brated by  Ottoman  historians,  organised  a  system  of 
secret  police  by  means  of  which  he  caused  to  be 
made  out  a  list  of  all  his  subjects  belonging  to  the 
Sufi  sect.  Their  number  amounted  to  seventy 
thousand,  forty  thousand  of  whom  were  massacred, 
the  rest  being  imprisoned  for  life.  In  Damascus 
a  few  hours  sufficed  for  the  extermination  of  the 
whole  community  of  schismatic  Mahommedans. 
The  Persian  monarch  shortly  afterwards  declared 
war  against  the  destroyer  of  his  co-religionists,  and 
a  sanguinary  campaign  ensued.  The  Ottoman 
Dervishes  in  European  Turkey,  whose  Shid  tenden- 
cies were  more  than  suspected,  were,  very  naturally, 
looked  upon  with  disfavour  during  the  course  of 
these  events,  the  Ulema  making  the  most  of  this 
favourable  opportunity  by  exciting  the  minds  of 
the  populace  as  well  as  of  the  authorities  against 
their  rivals. 

A  new  sect,  created  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth    century    by    Sheikh    Hamza  and   called 


186  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

after   him   the  Hamzavis,  appears   to   have   been, 
from  its  very  foundation,  in  bad  repute  with  the 
orthodox ;    and  Sheikh    Hamza    was   arrested  and 
subsequently  executed  by  order  of  the  Sheikh-ul- 
Islam,  the  ostensible  charge  against  him  being  that 
he  omitted  to  repeat  at  his  devotions  the  obhgatory 
number  of  the  Isma  i  Sherif,  or  "  Praises  of  the 
Prophet."     By  the  rest  of  the  Dervishes  he  was 
naturally  regarded  as  a  martyr,  and  his  reputation 
for  piety  and  extraordinary  powers  still  survives 
in  the  capital.     Another  Sheikh  of  the  same  Order 
was  also  put  to  death  shortly  afterwards  on  an 
accusation  of  heterodoxy,  together  with  forty  of 
his    disciples,    who    appear    to    have    voluntarily 
given   themselves  up  to  the  authorities.     And  so 
great  was  the  effervescence  of  the  orthodox  under 
several  succeeding  reigns,  and  particularly  in  that 
of  Mohammed  IV,  that  the  Ulema  and  other  rigid 
Mohammedans    even    ventured    to    propose    the 
extermination  of  all  the  Orders,  the  confiscation  of 
their  revenues,  and  the  destruction  of  their  monas- 
teries.    An    attempt    was,    indeed,    made    by    the 
Grand  Vizier  of  that  Sultan,  Achmet  Kiupruh,  to 
suppress   the   Bektashi,    Khalvetti,   Djelvetti,   and 
Shemshi  Orders.      Like  all  former  and  subsequent 
attempts,  however,  it  succeeded  but  partially,  as 
the  Government  was  overawed  by  the  Janisseries, 
whose  intimate  connection  with  the  Bektashi  Order 
made  them  the  aUies  of  the    Dervishes  generally, 
and  the  Porte  feared  to  do  anything  that  might 
arouse   the   resentment   of   this   formidable   force. 


STATUS  AND  INFLUENCE  187 

The  action  of  the  Sultans,  too,  seems  to  have  been 
but  half-hearted ;  for  it  is  recorded  that  even  Sehm  I, — 
whom  Mouradja  D'Ohsson  describes  as  "  poet, 
parricide  and  fratricide,  mystic,  tyrant,  and  con- 
queror," ^ — made  pilgrimages  to  the  tombs  of 
deceased,  and  to  the  cells  of  living  Sheikhs  of  repute  ; 
and  that  he  raised  at  Damascus  a  mosque  over 
the  grave  of  the  eminent  saint,  Muhajjin  el  Arabi. 
Suleyman  I  also  built  at  Konieh,  in  honour  of 
Jelalii-'d-Din,  a  mosque,  a  Tekkeh,  and  public 
alms-kitchen.  At  Sidi  Ghazi  he  erected  a  great 
estabUshment  with  a  Tekkeh  and  college  for  the 
Bektashis,  and  he  also  repaired  the  Tekkeh  covering 
the  tomb  of  Abdul  Kadr  Ghilani,  the  sainted 
founder  of  the  Kadiri  Order,  thus  drawing  upon 
himself  the  benedictions  of  three  influential  Orders. 

After  this  stormy  period  the  Orders  appear  to 
have  enjoyed  a  long  interval  of  freedom  from  perse- 
cution. For  Evliya  Effendi,  writing  towards  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  makes  no  mention 
of  the  existence  of  any  popular  ill-feeling  towards 
the  Dervishes  with  whom  he  was  closely  connected 
during  the  whole  of  his  long  and  adventurous  life. 
The  massacre  of  the  Janisseries  by  Mahmoud  II, 
the  "  Reformer,"  in  the  beginning  of  last  century, 
was,  however,  followed  by  persecution  of  the 
Bektashi  Order,  who  were  suspected  of  having  been 
concerned  in  the  revolts  that  ensued.  Its  members 
were  accused  of  treason  against  the  State,  and  the 
chief  Legists  agreed  with  the  Sultan  that  a  severe 

^  Histoire  de  VEmpire  Ottomane,  Part  I,  p.  377. 


188  MYSTICISM  AND   MAGIC 

sentence  should  be  passed  upon  the  Brotherhood. 
Its  three  principal  Sheikhs  were  consequently  pub- 
licly executed  ;  the  Order  was  declared  abohshed, 
many  of  its  Tekkehs  were  destroyed,  and  its  mem- 
bers generally  were  banished  from  the  capital, 
those  who  remained  being  compelled  to  abandon 
their  distinctive  dress.  ^ 

This  determined  action  on  the  part  of  the  Govern- 
ment spread  consternation  throughout  the  Dervish 
Orders  in  the  Empire,  whose  members  feared  for  the 
moment   that   they,  Hke  the   Bektashis,   were   all 
doomed  to  destruction  or  dispersion  ;    and,  to  use 
the  expressive   Oriental  phrase,    "  They  remained 
motionless,  expecting  their  last  day,  devoured  by 
anguish,  and  with  their  backs  resting  against  the 
wall  of  stupefaction."      But  here  Sultan  Mahmoud 
paused  in  his  work  of  destruction.     "  Though  " — to 
use  the  metaphors  of  the  historian  of  the  massacre 
of    the    Janisseries — "  he  had  not  feared  to  open 
with  the  sword  a  road  for  pubhc  happiness  by 
cutting  down  the  thorny  bushes  that  obstructed 
his   progress    and    tore   his   imperial   mantle,"    he 
hesitated  to  decree  the  entire  destruction  of  institu- 
tions which  had  enjoyed  the  respect  and  devotion 
of  his  predecessors  and  of  Moslems  generally  for 
upwards  of  a  thousand  years.*     This  "  hesitation," 
is,  however,  not  so  surprising  when  we  learn  the 

1  Ubicini,  Leitres  sur  la  Turquie,  Vol.  I,  p.  107. 

2  Ubicini,  who  stigmatises  the  doctrines  of  the  Sufis  as 
"abominable,"  appears  to  regret  that  the  Dervishes  were 
not  then  destroyed  root  and  branch.  See  his  Lettres,  etc.. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  101  and  114-115. 


STATUS  AND  INFLUENCE  189 

fact,  of  which  Ubicini  appears  to  have  been  ignorant, 
that  Sultan  Mahmoud  was  an  affiUated  member  of 
the  Mevlevi  Tekkeh  at  Pera,  and  frequently  visited 
it ;  and  that  he  also  honoured  with  his  presence  the 
meetings  of  a  Nakshibendi  fraternity  estabhshed  in 
the  suburb  of  Foundouldi.  ^ 

The  Dervishes,  however,  on  finding  that  the  blow 
dealt  at  the  BektSshis  was  not  followed  by  the 
suppression  or  even  persecution  of  the  other  Orders, 
soon  recovered  from  their  consternation  ;  and  the 
more  fanatical  among  them  set  on  foot  a  secret 
agitation  with  the  object  of  inciting  the  populace 
against  a  Sultan  who  had  dared  to  raise  his  hand 
against  '*  the  chosen  of  Allah."  In  1837  Mahmoud 
narrowly  escaped  falhng  a  victim  to  the  frenzied 
zeal  of  one  of  these  ascetics.  As  he  was  crossing 
the  Bridge  of  Galata,  surrounded  by  his  escort,  a 
long-haired  cenobite,  commonly  known  in  the 
capital  as  "  The  Hairy  Sheikh,"  darted  from  among 
the  bystanders,  and,  seizing  the  bridle  of  the  Sultan's 
horse,  exclaimed,  "  Giaour  Padishah !  (Infidel 
Sultan  !)  Art  thou  not  yet  satiated  with  abomina- 
tions ?  Thou  Shalt  answer  to  Allah  for  thy  impieties. 
Thou  destroyest  the  institutions  of  thy  Brethren  ; 
thou  ruinest  Islam,  and  drawest  down  the  wrath  of 
Allah  on  thyself  and  on  the  nation  !  "  The  Sultan, 
fearing  that  popular  feehng  might  be  roused  against 
himself  by  the  ascetic's  denunciations,  commanded 
his  guards  to  remove  the  madman  from  his 
path.     "  Madman  !  "  echoed  the  infuriated  Dervish. 

*  John  Brown,  The  Dervishes,  p.  346-347  n. 


190  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

"Sayest  thou  that  I  am  mad  ?  The  spirit  of  Allah, 
which  inspires  me,  and  which  I  must  obey,  has  com- 
manded me  to  declare  His  truth,  and  promised  me 
the  reward  of  the  Faithful  !  "  The  fanatic  was, 
however,  seized  and  put  to  death  without  delay. 
His  body  was  given  up  to  his  brethren,  who  buried 
it  with  the  honours  due  to  a  martyr  ;  and  on  the 
following  day  a  report  was  circulated  that  the 
watchers  had  seen  a  Nur,  or  supernatural  hght, 
hovering  over  the  grave  of  the  Sheikh — a  convincing 
proof  of  the  favour  with  which  Allah  had  regarded 
his  action. 

It  needed,  however,  a  bold  reformer  to  put 
a  noisy  fanatic  to  death,  and  the  majority  of  Sultans 
and  statesmen  have  contented  themselves  with 
exihng  to  some  remote  part  of  the  Empire  a  Dervish 
whose  influence  on  the  populace  they  had  cause  to 
fear. 

Generally  speaking,  whenever  public  hostihty  has 
been  excited  against  the  Dervish  Orders  it  has  had 
its  foundation  in  the  horror  with  which  the  orthodox 
Sunni  Mohammedans  regard  the  Shid  heresy,  and 
this  hostility  seems  never  to  have  been  very  general 
or  of  long  continuance.  For  those  whose  religious 
principles  and  devotion  to  the  purity  of  the  creed 
of  Islam  incited  them  to  combat  the  growing  power 
of  the  Dervishes,  have  invariably  been,  in  their 
turn,  combated  by  other  principles  drawn  from 
the  same  source;  the  majority  of  the  Turkish 
nation  having  always  regarded  the  Dervishes,  their 
Sheikhs,  and,  above  all,  the  Founders  of  the  Orders, 


STATUS  AND  INFLUENCE  191 

as  the  beloved  Sons  of  Heaven,  and  in  intimate 
relations    with    spiritual    powers.     These    opinions 
have    for    basis    the    tradition    that    the    different 
Orders  originated,  as  above  mentioned,  in  the  two 
congregations  of  Abu  Bekr  and  AH,  and  that  the 
grace  bestowed  upon  them  by  the  Prophet,  both 
as  his  relations  and  Vicars,  had  been  miraculously 
transmitted  through  the  series  of  Sheikhs  who,  from 
age  to  age,  have  governed  the  monastic  societies. 
It  is  also  popularly  beheved  that  the  legion  of  Saints, 
constituting  the  Mohammedan  spiritual  hierarchy 
alluded  to  in   a  previous  chapter  as  perpetually 
existing  among  mankind,  are  to  be  found  among 
the  members  of  the  Dervish  fraternities.     Conse- 
quently, to  condemn,  persecute,  and  destroy  them, 
as  was  the  unanimous  cry  of  the  Legists,  would  have 
been  to  draw  upon  the  whole  nation  the  wrath  of  all 
the  holy  Saints.     Even  the  less  enthusiastic  did  not 
dare  openly  to  declare  themselves  hostile  to  the 
Dervishes.     Moslems    generally    respect    what    is 
beyond  their  comprehension,  and  hold  this  mixture 
of  rehgious  practices  and  profane  exercises  to  be  a 
mystery  which  the  True  BeHever  should  treat  with 
silent  and  unquestioning  reverence.     And  the  super- 
stitious ideas  which  these  ascetics  have  the  talent 
to  perpetuate  in  their  nation  have  always  served  as 
their  shield.     So  persistent,  too,  is  the  influence  of, 
and  veneration  for,  the  spiritual  character  of  the 
more  eminent  among  the  Sheikhs,  that  even  those 
Ottomans   whose  education   and  intercourse   with 
Europeans  might  be  supposed  to  have  freed  them 


192  MYSTICISM   AND   xMAGIC 

from  national  superstition,  are  often  found  to  be 
still  under  the  influence  of  the  ideas  inculcated  in 
youth.  This  is  forcibly  illustrated  by  an  incident 
which  was  related  to  me  during  my  sojourn  at 
Salonica. 

A  Pasha,  who  had  represented  his  Government  at 
Paris,  and  whose  sprightly  wit,  liberal  ideas,  and 
pleasant  manners  had,  in  his  younger  days,  rendered 
him  a  great  favourite  in  European  circles,  was 
appointed  in  after  years  to  the  governorship  of  the 
Vilayet  of  Broussa.  During  his  residence  in  Europe 
he  had  collected  a  fine  library,  which  he  rightly 
considered  the  greatest  ornament  of  his  konak. 
But  these  reputed  "  infidel  "  writings  gave  umbrage 
to  a  fanatical  old  Dervish  Sheikh  of  that  city,  who 
had  great  influence  with  the  Pasha,  and  he  resolved 
upon  their  destruction.  With  persuasive  eloquence 
and  prophetic  promises,  he  so  worked  upon  the 
mind  of  the  Governor-General,  that  this  dignitary 
was  finally  prevailed  upon  to  consent  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  hterary  treasures,  and,  hke  those  of 
Don  Quixote,  they  were  committed  to  the  flames. 
The  promised  reward  of  this  sacrifice  was  the  much- 
desired  and  long-coveted  post  of  Grand  Vizier. 
Strange  to  say,  the  Pasha  was  actually  called  upon 
to  occupy  that  high  ofiice,  though  he  retained  it 
only  for  the  brief  period  of  three  days. 

From  the  earliest  times  to  the  present,  the  most 
general,  though  at  the  same  time  the  most  harmless, 
weapon  used  against  the  Dervishes  has  been  that 
of  ridicule.     Turkish  and  Persian  literature  teems 


STATUS  AND  INFLUENCE  193 

with  satires,in  proverb  and  story,  on  their  peculiarities 

of  dress  and  practice.     Even  the  mystic  Sadi  does 

not  spare  them  in  his  epigrams,  though  his  satire 

is  chiefly  directed  against  those  who  are  Dervishes 

in  outward  appearance  only,  as  for  instance  : — 

Of  what  avail  is  frock  or  rosary, 
Or  clouted  garment  ?     Keep  thyself  but  free 
From  evil  deeds,  it  will  not  need  for  thee 
To  wear  the  "  Crown  "  of  felt,  a  Dervish  be 
In  heart,  and  wear  the  cap  of  Tartary. 

A  humorous  story  is  current  in  the  capital  of  a 
Dervish  whose  ass,  a  present  from  his  Sheikh,  died 
soon  after  he  had  set  out  on  his  pilgrimage.  He 
buried  the  animal  by  the  roadside,  and  giving  out 
that  a  deceased  companion  was  the  occupant  of 
the  newly-made  grave,  soon  obtained  from  the 
charitable  passers-by  sufficient  funds  to  erect  a 
turbeh  over  it,  of  which  he  constituted  himself  the 
guardian.  Years  passed.  The  turbeh  became  a 
great  place  of  pilgrimage  ;  miracles  were  performed 
at  it,  and  the  fame  of  the  rival  shrine  reached  the 
ears  of  the  old  Sheikh,  who  had  heard  no  news  of  his 
pupil  since  his  departure,  and  lamented  him  as 
dead.  One  day,  accordingly,  he  locked  up  his 
turbeh  in  order  to  pay  a  visit  to  his  brother  Sheikh. 
He  was  hospitably  received,  and  recognised  the 
rival  turbedji  as  his  former  disciple.  When  evening 
came,  and  the  last  of  the  pilgrims  visiting  the  shrine 
had  departed,  the  old  Sheikh  asked,  with  much 
curiosity,,  who  was  the  saint  buried  below,  as  he 
knew  of  none  formerly  residing  in  that  part  of  the 
country.   After  some  hesitation.  Sheikh  Ali  confessed 


194  MYSTICISM  AND  MAGIC 

that  his  dead  ass  was  the  only  occupant  of  the  tomb. 
x\s  his  superior  did  not  seem  much  disturbed  by 
the  announcement,  the  younger  Dervish  ventured 
to  enquire  who  was  the  Saint  buried  under  his 
master's  turbeh,  and  learnt  at  length  that  it  was 
no  other  than  the  parent  of  his  own  sainted  donkey  1 
The  most  wildly  fanatical  are  found  among  the 
wandering  Dervishes,  who,  by  their  prophecies  and 
adjurations,  often  excite  the  Moslem  population 
against  their  Christian  neighbours.  Shortly  before 
the  outbreak  of  the  troubles  in  Bulgaria  in  1876, 
one  of  these  zealots  completely  terrorised  the 
Christian  inhabitants  of  Adrianople.  He  knocked 
at  one  door  after  another  in  the  Christian  quarter, 
forced  his  way  in  when  they  were  opened,  and 
declared  to  the  startled  inmates  that  Allah  had 
revealed  to  Him  his  desire  that  the  infidels  of  the 
town  should  be  destroyed  within  three  days  after 
Easter.  He  finally  reached  the  house  of  the  Bishop, 
to  whom  he  repeated  his  menacing  prophecy.  The 
reverend  gentleman,  apprehensive  of  the  possible 
consequences  to  his  flock  of  these  "  revelations,'* 
went  at  once  to  inform  the  Governor-General  of 
the  incident.  The  Dervish  was  sent  for,  asked  if 
he  had  said  what  was  reported  of  him,  and  what  he 
meant  by  it.  The  wily  ascetic,  however,  merely 
shrugged  his  shoulders  and  replied  carelessly  that, 
as  he  was  in  his  Hal  when  he  made  the  alleged 
declaration,  he  was  not  responsible  for  anything  he 
might  have  said.  The  Governor-General  deemed  it 
prudent  to  send  him  out  of  the  city  under  escort 


STATUS  x\ND  INFLUENCE  195 

with  orders  for  his  conveyance  to  Broussa  ;  but 
the  Dervish  managed  to  elude  the  vigilance  of  his 
guards — possibly  with  their  connivance — and  con- 
tinued his  fanatical  mission  in  other  parts  of  the 
province. 


WORKS  REFERRED  TO   IN   THE 
FOREGOING  PAGES 

Ali  Aziz  Effendi,  of  Crete.  The  Story  of  Jewad,  translated  by 

E.  J.  W.  GiBB.  16 
Brown,  J.  B.     The  Dervishes.  18,  37,  149,  187 
Browne,  E.  G.     A  Year  Among  the  Persians,  57-59 
Clermokt-Ganneau.     Revu6  Archeologique,    22n, 
Creasy,  Sir  E.  S.     History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  19 
Cunningham-Graham,  Mrs.     Life  of  St.   Theresa,  69n. 
D'Ohsson.     Tableau  GSnSrale  de  la  Turquie,  2n.,  187 
Dozy.     Essai  sur  I'Islamisme,  5n.,  14 
Evliya   Effendi,    Narrative   of   Travels    (Oriental   Translation 

Fund),  28,  33,  39,  40,  72,  166,  187 
Falconer,  Prof.     The  Mesnevi,  translation  of,  55 
Garcin  de  Tassy.      M antic  Uttair,  translation  of  the,  5n.,  49 
Gaston  Paris.     Acad,  des  Inscriptions.  22n 
GiBB,  E.  J.  W.     Ottoman  Poems.  61-3,   119n. 
Griffith.    Translation  of  Jami's  Yusuf  and  Zulaihha,  56n.,  59, 

60 
GuYARD.     RevuS  de  VHistoire  des  Religions,   22n. 
J  AMI.     Yusuf  and  Zulaikha  :  Salaman  and  Absal.  1,  56-60 
jELALtJ-'D-DiN.     The  Mesnevi  or  Masnavi,  50-55;   110 
Jones,  Sir  Wm.     The  Works,  vol.  i,  p.  52 
Lane.     The  Modern  Egyptians.   35 
Malcolm.     History  of  Persia,  15,  153-4 
MicHELET.     La  Sorcidre,   163 
Redhouse,    Sir    J.     The   Mesnevi;   The   Acts   of   the   Adepts, 

translations  of,  31n.,  51n.,  69,  91,  156,  158,  161,  174 
Riley,   Athelstan.     Mount  Athos.   lln. 
Rozenzweig.     Yusuf  und  Zulaikha,   56n. 
Sadi.     The   Gulistan,   35n. 
Sale.     A I  Koran,  72,  136  8,  143,   158 
Silvestre  de  Sacy.     Journal  des  Savants.  2n. 
Sprenger.     Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  5n. 
Ubicini.     Lettres  sur  la  Turquie,  46,  180,  188 
Vaughan.     Hours  with  the  Mystics,  5n. 


197 


14— (3II9) 


INDEX 


A'ashik  Pasha,  mystical 
poetry  of,  60 

Abddls,  or  Perishans,  popular 
veneration  for,  37  ;  canon- 
isation of,  40 ;  stories  of 
famous,  39 

Abdul  Kadr  Ghilani,  16; 
"  Rose"  of,  119;  prayer 
of,  151  ;  legends  concerning, 
120,  151  ;  his  forty  days' 
fast,  153  ;  tomb  of,  restored 
by  Suleiman   I,    187. 

"  Absent  Ones,"  the,  34 

Abu  Bekr,  the  first  Khalif,  a 
Mystic,  1,  17  ;  legend  con- 
cerning, 116;  Prophet's 
injunction  to,  122  ;  original 
fraternity  revived,  134 

Adam,  Patron  of  the  Baker's 
Guild,    42 

Adepts,  Acts  of  the,   146,  etc. 

Ak   Shemsu-'d-Din,    181 

Ali,  the  third  Khalif,  a  Mystic, 
1,  17 

Allah,  the  "  Beautiful  Names  " 
of,  121 

Alphabetical  Magic>   142 

Apocalyptic  Puzzle,   the,    140 

Augustine,  St.,  reference  to, 
5n 

Baha-'d-Din  Veled,  fellow- 
student  of  Sadi  49  ;  legends 
concerning,   154,  etc.,   157 

Bayazid  Bestemi,  his  panthe- 
istic doctrines,  4  ;  mystical 
legend  concerning,  54 

Begging    Dervishes,    88 


Bektashi  Order,  its  foundation 
18;  costume    of    111,    112 
its    symbolisms,    113,    118 
persecution   of   the,    187 

Bithynian       Olympus,       her- 
mitages of  the,  178 


Celibacy,  vow  of,  101 

Corn     brought    to    Adam    by 

Gabriel,  42 
Corn-tree  of   Paradise,    Adam 

forbidden  to  eat  of,  42 

Dervish  Orders,  2  ;  saints, 
6,  22  et  seq.,  64,  71  et  seq.. 
146  et  seq.,  170  et  seq.  ; 
Mahdis,  20-1  ;  poets,  46  et 
seq.  ;  endowments,  66-7  ; 
salutations,  85  ;  obligation 
of  silence,  90  ;  penances,  90- 
92  ;  hospitahty,  93  ;  fune- 
rals, 93 ;  costumes,  107  et 
seq.,  Ill  et  seq.,  118  ;  sym- 
bolic objects  of  the,  114 
et  seq.  ;    Sisterhoods,    175-6 

Dervishes,  hostility  of  Legists 
towards,  179;  in  Ottoman 
warfare,  180  ;  in  folk-tale, 
144  ;  married,  87  ;  magical 
practices  of  the,  138  et  seq.  ; 
ecstatic  powers  of,  146  et 
seq.  ;  satires  on,  192  ; 
rosary  used  by,  121  ; 
vocative  and  contem- 
plative varieties  of,  122 

Dimitri,  St.,  tomb  of,  at 
Salonica,  76 

Djins,  61n,  142,  145 


199 


200 


INDEX 


Djouneid,    mystical    doctrines 
of,  5 

ECKHART,     Christian    Mystic. 

5n 
Elias,  see  Khidhr 
Elemental  Charms,  143 
Endowments,  66,  67 
Evil    Eye,    power    attributed 

to  the.  136 

FakhrO-'n-Nisa,  "  The  Glory 

of  Women."  174-5 
Fatiha,  72n,  74.  121,  124 
Fatima.      daughter-in-law     of 

Jelala-'d-Din  er  Rumi.  173 
Freemason,  synonymous  with 

"  infidel,"  132 
Gabriel,   the  Angel.   Ill,    114 

Hadji  Bektash,  honoured  by 
Sultan  Orchan,  18  ;  blesses 
the  Janissaries,  19 ;  his 
parentage  and  education, 
162  ;  legend  concerning,  163 

Hamzavi  Order,  70,  121  ;  prin- 
ciples of  the,  133 ;  per- 
secution of,  185-6 

Hassan  and  Hussein,  sons  of 
the  Khahf  Ah,  117,  119 

Imams,  the  Twelve,  113; 
the  Imam  Riza,  113;  the 
Imam  Jafer,  113 

Initiation,  preliminaries  to, 
95  ;  ceremonies  of,  96  ;  of  a 
Mevlevi,  96  ;  of  a  Bektdshi, 
97  ;  of  a  Sddi,  102  ;  of  a 
i?M/rt't,  102;  ofaA'at^iVi,  103 

Jam!,  his  mystical  poems, 
56  et  seq, 

Janisseries,  the,  blessed  by 
Hadji  Bektash,  19;  de- 
stroyed by  Mahmoud  II, 
187 


Jelalu  -  'd  -  Din,  er  Rumi, 
founder  of  Mevlevi  Order, 
16,  author  of  the  Mesnevi, 
50  ;  legends  concerning,  154 
et  seq.  ;  his  scholastic  career, 
156-8;  his  marvellous 
powers,  160  ;  his  wife  and 
daughter-in-law,   173 

Jemshid,  42n 

Jewad,  "  The  Story  of," 
quotation  from,    15 

Ka'abah,  the,  54  ;  station  of 
tlrc  Quth,  35 

Kadiri  Order,  its  foundation, 
16 ;  mystic  Rose  of,  the, 
120,   131 

Kalenderi  Dervishes,  their 
origin  and  obligations,  20 

Kamber,  groom  of  the  Khalif 
Ah,  113,  114,  117 

Ketman,  the,  5,  6,  105 

Khalveti  Order,  its  doctrines, 
17-18;  legend  of  its  Piv,  18 

Khidhr-Elias,  or  Khizr,  his 
identification  with  Elijah, 
St.  George,  and  Horus,  22  ; 
legends  respecting,  23  et 
seq.  ;  dual  personality  of, 
26  ;  protector  of  travellers, 
26  ;  connected  with  St. 
Nicholas,  27  ;  his  periodic 
reincarnations,  27  ;  quests 
of  Khidhr-Elias,  28 ;  mi- 
raculous powers  of,  29  ;  visits 
Jelalu-'d-Din    er    Rumi,    32 

Khiyah,  his  mystic  poetry,  62 

Kira  Khatiin,  wife  of  Jelalu- 
'd-Din  er  Rumi,   173 

Legends,  Dervish,  popular 
origin  of,  163 

Legists,  hostility  of  to  Der- 
vishes, 173.  183 

Magic  and  Witchcraft,  alluded 
to  in  Koran,  136,  138 


INDEX 


201 


Mansiir  Halladj,  his  doctrines 
6  ;  persecution        of,         8 
martyrdom         of,         9-12 
miracles  of,   10 

Mesnevi,  the,  of  Jelalu-'d- 
Din,  50  et  seq.  ;  110 

Mevlevi  Order,  foundation  of, 
16  ;  its  Grand  Master,  67  ; 
its  music,  108  ;  legend  of  the 
Reed-flute,  110;  devr  or 
"dance"  of  the,  123; 
prayers,  124 

Mohammed  Bokhara,  disciple 
of  Hadji  Bektash,  164 

Mohammed  of  Nischapur,  or 
"  Attar,"  his  conversion, 
46  ;  his  poetical  works,   47 

Mohammed  the  Prophet, 
Sheikhs  of  Mevlevi  Order 
claim  descent  from,  107  ; 
receives  tidings  from  Gabriel, 
118;  bequeathed  mantle  to 
Sheikh  Uwais,  119;  be- 
spelled  by  a  Jew,  137 

Mohammedanism,  opposition 
to  of  Sufism,  5 

Monasteries  and  Shrines, 
Mevlevi,  65  ;  frugal  life  in, 
67 

Monastic  organisation,  79  et 
seq. 

Moses.and  Khidhr-Elias,  legend 
of,  23  ;  and  the  Shepherd, 
Mesnevi  parable  of,  53  ; 
and  the  Stone,  115 


Nakshibendi  Order,    founda- 
tion of,   17 
Nicholas,   St.   a  myrobltfe,  77n 
"  Night  of  Power,"  the,  92n 

Omer  Khalvet,  legend  of,  18 
Original   Fraternities,    1 


Pantheism,  4,  48 
Patron  Saints,   42 


Pilgrimage,    106 
Poetry,  Persian  and  Ottoman, 
peculiarities     of,     44  ;  mys- 
tical   significations    of,    45  ; 
specimens  of,  48  et  seq. 
Poverty,  principle  of,  66 
"  Power  of  the  Will,"  148,  150 
Prophet's  Mantle,  Feast  of  the, 
119n 

"  Questioners,"  the,  174n 
Qmban  Bairam,  Feast  of,  160n 
Outb,—  "  Pole  "or      "  Axis," 
"  32,  54 

Reed-flute,  song  of  the,  52  ; 
legend  of  the,   110 

Religious  Exercises  of  the 
Mevlevi  Order,  123  ;  of  the 
RUfa'i,    128;  of    the    Sddi, 

131  ;  of     the     Nakshibendi, 

132  ;  of  the  Hamzavi,  132 
Rum,  the  Eastern  Empire,  16 
Rosaries    used    by    Dervishes, 

66,   121 
Riifai    Order,    its    foundation, 
16;    costume,        118;      its 
mystical  Rose,  120 

Sadi,  disciple  of  Sa'ed-'d-Din 
of  Kashgar,  49  ;  his  poetical 
works,    50 

Sa'ed-'d-Din  of  Kashgar,  his 
wonderful  powers,    148-9 

Saints,  Dervish,  22,  148  ;  can- 
onised in  recent  times,  169  ; 
women-saints,   170-4 

Seyyid  Emir  Sultan,  legend 
concerning,  167  ;  marries 
Sultan's  daughter,  168 ; 
reproves  Sultan  Bayazid  I, 
ib. 

Sheikhs,  Dervish,  temporal 
duties  of,  68 ;  powers  of, 
78  ;  celibate  and  married, 
81;  a  polygamous  sheikh,  82 


202 


INDEX 


Shemsu-'d-Din      of       Konieh, 

107 
Sidqi,  Ottoman  poetess,  62 
''  Solomon's  Seal,"  a    Dervish 

symbol,    121 
Spells  and  Counterspells,  138-9 
Spiritual   Hierarchy,    the,     32 

et  seq. 
"  Stone  of  Contentment,"  the, 

108;  of  "  Submission,"  115 
Sufi  Dynasty,  the,   184  ;    Phil- 
osophy, 1-3,  8,  17  ;  massacre 

of  by  Selim  I,  185 
Sunnis   and    Shias,    183,    185, 

190 
Symbohsms  in  dress,  121 

Talismans,     140 ;    of     Hadji 

Bektash,   141 
Thought-reading,  148 


"  Thou9and     Nights     and     a 

Night,"      Dervish      dances 

referred  to  in,   123 
Timour  the  Tartar,  his  camp 

broken   up  by     a    Dervish, 

33 


UwAis,   Sheikh,  2  ; 
barber-dentists, 
pient      of     the 
mantle,  119n 

"  Water    of    Life,' 
myth  of  the,  23 


patron  of 

43  ;     reci- 

Prophet's 

'    Oriental 


"  YusuF       and       Zulaikha," 
romantic    poem    of,     56-60 

Zemzem,  Sacred  well  of,  102 
Zikr,    or    Invocation,     121-2, 
126,   129 


THE  END 


Printgd  by  Sir  Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  Bath 
K — (2119) 


Date  Due 

Id  8    '^ 

i 

1 

My  i  3  '40 

w 

fsry  4  fj   »ir« 

1 

^^^^^^ 

i 

U  btiWvf^st?^!^ 

iiii. 

1      -  —^ 

1^ 

. 

f) 

Z  -  Islam 
GARNETT 

Mysuicism  and 

magio  in  Turkey 


■#': 


m 


m 


BP175.D4G23 

Mysticism  and  magic  in  Turkey;  an 

eological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


2  00111    1022 


